CROUSE,ELCIK,CORREDOR - The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies

The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies. Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East

WORKING PAPERS 13

Christy Crouse Nur Elçik Jessica Corredor Villamil The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies. Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East

WORKING PAPERS 13

Migrant flows reveal and provoke authoritarian and illiberal tendencies in governments ranging from democratic to authoritarian. These practices tend to negatively impact the inclusion, protection, and humane treatment of migrants. We view this as a problem; migration or the movement of people is a reality, and the response to this reality is a choice that countries are faced with constantly. We wish to better understand the factors that trigger or mitigate these authoritarian and illiberal responses to migration. This exploratory, theoretical study engages with the nuance of both migration and authoritarian tendencies to provide a wide and conversation-starting introduction to the intersection of these topics. For this research, we focus on Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), with examples from Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico, Turkey, and Lebanon. These two regions are currently experiencing major migration crises. Our study aims to contribute to the conversation and debate about the ways in which countries respond with authoritarian or illiberal tendencies to migrant flows into, out of, or through them. Our guiding questions include: How are migration flows revealing and provoking authoritarian and illiberal tendencies in countries with different levels of democratic development? What are the illiberal and authoritarian tendencies that we observe in the responses to migrant flows of countries with differing levels of democracy? What are the authoritarian and illiberal practices that contribute to migrants’ low acceptance and integration in destination countries? What factors trigger , or mitigate, these tendencies in both receiving and sending countries? These questions help us explore the relationship between migration and authoritarian and illiberal tendencies. Our findings identify certain

illiberal practices that contribute to migrants’ low acceptance and integration in destination countries? What factors trigger , or mitigate, these tendencies in both receiving and sending countries? These questions help us explore the relationship between migration and authoritarian and illiberal tendencies. Our findings identify certain factors that we believe either trigger or mitigate such tendencies. Christy Baile Crouse is an attorney with a J.D. from the University of Chicago, where she focused on international human rights law and migration law. She is a researcher at Dejusticia in the International Area, researching and advocating on issues of migration, climate change, and civic space. Nur Elçik Sarı is a human rights practitioner with a dual B.A. in Political Science and Public Administration and an M.A. in Political Science and International Relations from Istanbul University. She has worked at NGOs in various fields for 18 years. Her areas of specialization include gender , migration, and democracy studies. Jessica Corredor Villamil is a human rights advocate with a Ph.D. in Sociology and Anthropology and an M.A. in Migration Studies. She has worked in academia, with international and national NGOs, and as a human rights consultant. She currently serves as Chief Officer for Advocacy and Solidarity Action at Civicus. 12_INTERSECTION OF MIGRATION.indd Todas las páginas12_INTERSECTION OF MIGRATION.indd Todas las páginas 19/08/24 2:24 p. m.19/08/24 2:24 p. m.Resumen Algunos gobiernos, democráticos hasta autoritarios, reaccionan con tendencias autoritarias e iliberales a los flujos migratorios. Estas prácticas tienden a afectar negativamente la inclusión, protección y trato digno de los migrantes. Consideramos esto un problema; la migración o el movimiento de personas es una realidad, y la respuesta a esta realidad

rias e iliberales a los flujos migratorios. Estas prácticas tienden a afectar negativamente la inclusión, protección y trato digno de los migrantes. Consideramos esto un problema; la migración o el movimiento de personas es una realidad, y la respuesta a esta realidad es una elección que los países enfrentan constantemente. Deseamos comprender mejor los factores que desencadenan o mitigan estas respuestas autoritarias y liberales a la migración. Este estudio exploratorio y teórico aborda los matices tanto de la migración como de las tendencias autoritarias para brindar una introducción amplia y generadora de conversación a la intersección de estos temas. Para esta investigación, nos enfocamos en América Latina y el Caribe ( alc) y Medio Oriente y Norte de África ( mena ), con ejemplos de Venezuela, Colombia, México, Turquía y Líbano. Estas dos regiones están experimentando actualmente importantes crisis migratorias. Nuestro estudio apunta a contribuir al diálogo y debate sobre las formas en que los países responden con tendencias autoritarias o iliberales a los flujos migratorios hacia, desde o a través de ellos. Nuestras preguntas guía incluyen: ¿Cómo los flujos migratorios revelan y provocan tendencias autoritarias y liberales en países con diferentes niveles de desarrollo democrático? ¿Cuáles son las tendencias iliberales y autoritarias que observamos en las respuestas a los flujos migratorios de países con diferentes niveles de democracia? ¿Cuáles son las prácticas autoritarias iliberales que contribuyen a la baja aceptación e integración de los migrantes en los países de destino? ¿Qué factores desencadenan o mitigan estas tendencias tanto en países receptores como emisores? Estas preguntas

¿Cuáles son las prácticas autoritarias iliberales que contribuyen a la baja aceptación e integración de los migrantes en los países de destino? ¿Qué factores desencadenan o mitigan estas tendencias tanto en países receptores como emisores? Estas preguntas nos ayudan a explorar la relación entre la migración y las tendencias autoritarias e iliberales. Nuestros hallazgos identifican ciertos factores que creemos que desencadenan o atenúan dichas tendencias.

Palabras clave: migración, tendencias iliberales, tendencias autoritarias, América Latina,

Medio Oriente. Summary Democratic and authoritarian governments alike may respond to migrant flows with authoritarian and illiberal tendencies. These practices tend to negatively impact the inclusion, protection, and humane treatment of migrants. We view this as a problem; migration or the movement of people is a reality, and the response to this reality is a choice that countries are faced with constantly. We wish to better understand the factors that trigger or mitigate these authoritarian and illiberal responses to migration. This exploratory, theoretical study engages with the nuance of both migration and authoritarian tendencies to provide a wide and conversation-starting introduction to the intersection of these topics. For this research, we focus on Latin America and the Caribbean ( lac) and the Middle East and North Africa ( mena ), with examples from Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico, Turkey, and Lebanon. These two regions are currently experiencing major migration crises. Our study aims to contribute to the conversation and debate about the ways in which countries respond with authoritarian or illiberal tendencies to migrant flows into, out of, or through them. Our guiding questions include: How are migration flows revealing and provoking authoritarian and illiberal tendencies in countries with different levels of democratic development? What are the illiberal and authoritarian tendencies that we observe in the responses to migrant flows of countries with differing levels of democracy? What are the authoritarian and illiberal practices that contribute to migrants’ low acceptance and

authoritarian and illiberal tendencies in countries with different levels of democratic development? What are the illiberal and authoritarian tendencies that we observe in the responses to migrant flows of countries with differing levels of democracy? What are the authoritarian and illiberal practices that contribute to migrants’ low acceptance and integration in destination countries? What factors trigger, or mitigate, these tendencies in both receiving and sending countries? These questions help us explore the relationship between migration and authoritarian and illiberal tendencies. Our findings identify certain factors that we believe either trigger or mitigate such tendencies.

Keywords: migration, illiberal tendencies, authoritarian tendencies, Latin America,

Middle East.

To quote this book: Baile Crouse, C., Elçik Sarı, N., & Corredor Villamil, J. (2024). The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East . Dejusticia.WORKING PAPER 13Christy Baile Crouse is an attorney with a J.D. from the University of Chicago, where she focused on international human rights law and migration law. She is a researcher at Dejusticia in the International Area, researching and advocating on issues of migration, climate change, and civic space.

Nur elçik sari is a human rights practitioner with a dual B.A. in Political Science and Public Administration and an M.A. in Political Science and International Relations from Istanbul University. She has worked at ngos in various fields for 18 years. Her areas of specialization include gender, migration, and democracy studies. Jessi Ca Corredor Villamil is a human rights advocate with a Ph.D. in Sociology and Anthropology and an M.A. in Migration Studies. She has worked in academia, with international and national ngos, and as a human rights consultant. She currently serves as Chief Officer for Advocacy and Solidarity Action at Civicus.The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal

Tendencies: Contextualized

in Latin America

national ngos, and as a human rights consultant. She currently serves as Chief Officer for Advocacy and Solidarity Action at Civicus.The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal

Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East

Christy Baile Crouse Nur Elçik Sarı Jessica Corredor Villamil Working PaperWorking Paper 13

THE INTERSECTION OF MIGRATION WITH AUTHORITARIAN AND ILLIBERAL TENDENCIES:

CONTEXTUALIZED IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST Baile Crouse Christy The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East/Christy Baile Crouse, Nur Elçik Sarı, Jessica Corredor Villamil – Bogotá: Editorial Dejusticia, 2024. 93 pages; 17 x 24 cm. – (Working paper) Digital ISBN: 978-628-7517-95-0 1. migration 2. illiberal tendencies 3. authoritarian tendencies 4. Latin America 5. Middle East.

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First English Edition Bogotá, Colombia, August 2024 This document is available at https://www.dejusticia.orgvii Working Paper 13

Content ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 3

Regions of Study ......................................................... 6 Methodology ............................................................... 9 Defining Concepts ...................................................... 13

I. AUTHORITARIAN AND ILLIBERAL TENDENCIES AND MIGRATION ............................................................ 15

INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 3

Regions of Study ......................................................... 6 Methodology ............................................................... 9 Defining Concepts ...................................................... 13

I. AUTHORITARIAN AND ILLIBERAL TENDENCIES AND MIGRATION ............................................................ 15

A. Authoritarianism and migration in Venezuela: how a regime pushed people to emigrate ...................... 18

B. Democracy and migration in Colombia: a new experience of mass immigration ......................... 23

C. Migration in Mexico: the subtle impact of authoritarian and illiberal tendencies in migration control .................................................... 28

D. Authoritarianism and migration in Turkey: expectations for Syrian refugees .................................. 31

E. Authoritarian tendencies and migration in Lebanon: power struggles and political instability ..........35

II. THE INSTRUMENTALIZATION OF MIGRATION

AS AN AUTHORITARIAN AND ILLIBERAL TENDENCY ......... 39

A. Instrumentalization of migration to promote nationalism ................................................................ 40

B. Instrumentalizing migration for political and economic gain ............................................................ 42

C. Using “migrants” as a scapegoat ............................. 45

III. THE SECURITIZATION OF MIGRATION AS

AN AUTHORITARIAN AND ILLIBERAL TENDENCY .............. 49

A. Migration as a national security issue ....................... 50viii The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East

B. Securitizing the border ............................................ 51

C. Portraying migrants as threats and criminals .............53

IV. KEY FINDINGS ON MIGRATION AND

AUTHORITARIAN AND ILLIBERAL TENDENCIES ................ 55

A. Triggering factors of illiberal and authoritarian tendencies ................................................................ 57

B. Mitigating factors of illiberal and authoritarian tendencies ................................................................ 58

REFERENCES ................................................................ 61

GRAPHIC RESOURCES INDEX ......................................... 851

Working Paper 13 Acknowledgments

A. Triggering factors of illiberal and authoritarian tendencies ................................................................ 57

B. Mitigating factors of illiberal and authoritarian tendencies ................................................................ 58

REFERENCES ................................................................ 61

GRAPHIC RESOURCES INDEX ......................................... 851

Working Paper 13 Acknowledgments First we would like to thank the International Network of Civil Liberties Organizations ( INCLO) for sponsoring this study and for continuously advocating for broader civil society participation and the protection of human rights. We are also grateful to each individual who participated in this study, particularly for granting us interviews and for their insights about the connections between migration and illiberal and authoritarian tendencies. In addition, we would like to thank the editorial and logistical teams at Dejusticia for organizing a seminar to discuss this paper and preparing it for publication. Finally, our gratitude goes to all those who tirelessly resist illiberal and authoritarian tendencies in general, and especially those who defend the rights of people who migrate.3 Working Paper 13 Introduction According to Freedom House’s 2024 Freedom in the World assessment, global freedom declined for the 18th consecutive year (Gorokhovskaia & Grothe, 2024). The assessment found that “[a]lmost everywhere, the downturn in rights was driven by attacks on pluralism—the peaceful coexistence of people with different political ideas, religions, or ethnic identities—that harmed elections and sowed violence” (p. 2). Political rights and civil liberties were diminished in 52 countries, while 21 countries made improvements (p. 1). Less than 20 percent of the global population currently lives in “fully free countries” (Morgan, 2021). Established democracies and democratically elected governments “are increasingly adopting authoritarian tactics,” and this democratic decline often enjoys “significant popular support” (International IDEA , 2021a, p. 1).1 This democratic backsliding is on display when examining migration. Democratic and authoritarian governments alike may respond

Established democracies and democratically elected governments “are increasingly adopting authoritarian tactics,” and this democratic decline often enjoys “significant popular support” (International IDEA , 2021a, p. 1).1 This democratic backsliding is on display when examining migration. Democratic and authoritarian governments alike may respond to migrant flows with authoritarian and illiberal tendencies. These practices tend to negatively impact the inclusion and humane treatment of migrants. We view this as a problem; migration or the movement of people is a reality, and the response to this reality is a choice that countries are faced with constantly. We wish to better understand these authoritarian and illiberal responses to migration. Some research examines how migration and authoritarian and illiberal practices interact. One focus of the literature is on how 1 It is important to note that this shift indicates that there is a move toward authoritarianism, but it does not indicate whether this move is greater than the move toward democracy.4 The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East authoritarian governments treat their emigrant and diaspora communities. Tsourapas examines strategies these governments use against their emigrant and diaspora communities to “shed light on the interplay between migrants, diasporas, and the repressive strategies developed by authoritarian countries of origin” (Tsourapas, 2019, n.p.; Tsourapas, 2021). Another focus is migration policymaking and theoretical propositions regarding how the type of regime—whether a dictatorship or an authoritarian, autocratic, liberal, or illiberal government—affects migration policy and immigration (Mirilovic, 2010; Natter, 2021; Natter, 2023). Studies also look at how authoritarian regimes may benefit from certain types of migration policy and how societal anxieties about the economy or security may affect such policy (Koch, Weber & Werenfels, 2018; Crepaz & Naoufal, 2022). Finally, other research analyzes the authoritarian populism-migration nexus and evaluates why

efit from certain types of migration policy and how societal anxieties about the economy or security may affect such policy (Koch, Weber & Werenfels, 2018; Crepaz & Naoufal, 2022). Finally, other research analyzes the authoritarian populism-migration nexus and evaluates why and how authoritarian populist rhetoric varies in different geopolitical contexts (Altınörs, 2021). In this research study, our guiding questions aim to help us understand how migration flows are revealing and provoking authoritarian and illiberal tendencies in countries with different levels of democratic development. What are the illiberal and authoritarian tendencies that we observe in the responses to migrant flows by countries with differing levels of democracy? What are the authoritarian and illiberal practices that contribute to the low acceptance and integration of migrants in destination countries? What factors trigger, or mitigate, these tendencies in both receiving and sending countries? These are the questions that guide our study to understand the relationship between migration and authoritarian and illiberal tendencies. Migration challenges the territorial borders of a place and also the identity of the political community in that place, making migrants easy to blame for instability and problems experienced by receiving and transit countries. Some research argues that economic conditions predict anti-immigrant attitudes (Kuntz, Davidov & Semyonov, 2017), while others focus on social or cultural concerns as factors that shape attitudes toward immigrants (Hainmueller & Hopkins, 2014). In a context of right-wing authoritarianism, perceived cultural distance from immigrants shapes attitudes about immigration (Peresman, Carroll & Bäck, 2021). These host communities value group norms, cohesion, and stability (Duckitt, 1989). Thus, “a perceived need to protect the5 Working Paper 13 ingroup from potential cultural threats can serve as a key mechanism by which authoritarian predispositions manifest as hostility toward immigration” (Peresman, Carroll & Bäck, 2021, p. 617). Migrants and refugees have an impact on both the countries they

Working Paper 13 ingroup from potential cultural threats can serve as a key mechanism by which authoritarian predispositions manifest as hostility toward immigration” (Peresman, Carroll & Bäck, 2021, p. 617). Migrants and refugees have an impact on both the countries they come from and those they settle in economically, socially, and politically. They are essentially political actors in both countries. Public debate and concerns about migration—including whether multiculturalism “works,” whether migrants contribute to the country’s economic well-being, or whether it is possible to effectively integrate migrants into society—showcase the polarization of societies and policymakers around this specific issue. Our approach to studying the topics of migration and authoritarianism does not focus on solely authoritarian regimes’ responses to migration. On the spectrum from democratic to authoritarian governments, we think there is much more to study in terms of tendencies that are typical of authoritarian and illiberal governments but which many governments exhibit, whether or not they are formally categorized as authoritarian. We seek to point up some of these tendencies and how they relate to migrant flows, both in and out of countries. Rather than comparing country contexts to demonstrate how they are similar or different, we select country cases in order to independently study each of their responses to migrant flows. In each case, we look at the country’s context regarding the type of government and domestic political situation, migration patterns and characteristics of the migrant population, and the government and society’s response to migrant flows. We then analyze all these country case responses in conjunction with each other to spot trends. By comparing countries’ responses to migrant flows, we can see a trend of similar authoritarian and illiberal practices in countries with varying levels of democracy. In this study, we highlight some of those main practices in response to migrant flows and identify factors that trigger or mitigate such practices. However, this does not mean that the various country responses to migration are exclusively due to a rise in authoritarianism. Our argument is not a causal one. We do not suggest that migration causes

to migrant flows and identify factors that trigger or mitigate such practices. However, this does not mean that the various country responses to migration are exclusively due to a rise in authoritarianism. Our argument is not a causal one. We do not suggest that migration causes countries to become more authoritarian or illiberal, or that authoritarianism is the sole cause of emigration. Nor do we suggest that any given tendency (e.g. instrumentalization and securitization) is exclusively6 The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East due to authoritarianism. Rather, we argue that migration is met with authoritarian and illiberal responses in some circumstances and that this affects migrants negatively by excluding them, denying their human rights, or harming them in other ways. We use examples from our selection of countries with large migrant flows (either in or out) to illustrate and elucidate this interaction. This exploratory, theoretical study engages with the nuance of both migration and authoritarian tendencies to provide a wide and conversation-starting introduction to the intersection of these topics. We begin our analysis in Section I with a look at authoritarian and illiberal tendencies and migration in our five chosen countries. In this section, we establish the current state of each country’s government, the various either illiberal or authoritarian tendencies observed in those contexts, details about the migrant population in that country, and how migration relates to these tendencies. In Section II, we delve deeper into the observed tendency of instrumentalization of migration. In Section III , we discuss the securitization of migration understood as an authoritarian and illiberal tendency. Finally, we conclude with some key findings from our study about the triggering and mitigating factors of illiberal and authoritarian responses to migration in both receiving and sending countries. Regions of Study For this research, we focus on Latin America and the Caribbean ( LAC) and the Middle East and North Africa ( MENA), with examples from Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico, Turkey, and Lebanon. These two regions

receiving and sending countries. Regions of Study For this research, we focus on Latin America and the Caribbean ( LAC) and the Middle East and North Africa ( MENA), with examples from Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico, Turkey, and Lebanon. These two regions are currently experiencing major migration crises. LAC has made the most significant democratic gains worldwide in the last 40 years, becoming the third most democratic region in the world after North America and Europe. According to a 2022 International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA) report, the proportion of democracies in LAC has grown from 32 percent to 84 percent in the last 50 years (International IDEA , 2022). Democracy reached its peak in 2006-2007, when Cuba was the lone authoritarian country in the region. While democracy continues to expand, its quality is deteriorating and threats to democracy are rising in the region, “including polarization, disinformation, restrictions on7 Working Paper 13 rights, and increasing attacks on environmental and human rights activists as well as key democratic institutions” (p. 30). According to Latinobarómetro (2023), overall support for democracy in the region fell to 48 percent in 2023, the lowest level in recent years. According to the report, Latin Americans’ faith in democracy is waning generally. But it should be noted that there is not a single dominant democratic tendency in LAC. While Uruguay and Costa Rica rank among the best in the world in terms of democratic institutions and tools, and Colombia shows positive democratic tendencies, it is notable that Brazil, Venezuela, and Nicaragua, for example, have experienced a serious democratic decline. The democratic decline is especially evident in parts of LAC through various attacks on the rule of law. Such attacks are waged “on electoral management bodies, on constitutional courts, the media and national human rights institutions” ( OHCHR , 2022). Other prominent features of the region are income inequality and corruption. For decades the LAC region has been a net exporter of people,

electoral management bodies, on constitutional courts, the media and national human rights institutions” ( OHCHR , 2022). Other prominent features of the region are income inequality and corruption. For decades the LAC region has been a net exporter of people, particularly to the United States and certain countries in the European Union, as its levels of economic development, job opportunities, and economic prospects have lagged behind other more prosperous regions. In the past 25 years, several countries in the LAC region have undertaken policies to stabilize and reform their economic structures and build representative democracies in order to put their economies on a path of prosperity and the rule of law. Migration in LAC has increased due to economic uncertainty, gang-related violence and insecurity, and disasters linked to climate change, among other triggers ( IOM, 2024). Five overlapping displacement situations are occurring simultaneously in the region, “including in and from Colombia, Venezuela, Central America and Mexico, Nicaragua, and Haiti” ( UNHCR , 2023a, p. 1). Venezuela’s situation alone has created more than 7 million migrants, and about 6 million of them are being received by other countries in the region ( UNHCR , 2023a). Migration from Central American countries like Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala has increased due to gang-related violence and economic hardship ( UNHCR , 2022). Haiti’s governmental crisis, high poverty rate, and natural disasters have also led to an outpouring of migrants in the past decade, many of whom eventually make their way northward via South America (Yates, 2021). In 2023, the UN Refugee Agency, UNHCR , found that over 21 million people were displaced8 The Intersection of Migration with Authoritarian and Illiberal Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East across LAC . In receiving countries such as Colombia, the influx of migrants has put huge strains on the social safety net in areas like health and education (Sabatini & Wallace, 2021). These countries have also

Tendencies: Contextualized in Latin America and the Middle East across LAC . In receiving countries such as Colombia, the influx of migrants has put huge strains on the social safety net in areas like health and education (Sabatini & Wallace, 2021). These countries have also experienced backlash from the native population against migrants

(Sabatini & Wallace, 2021). The region of the Middle East and North Africa ( MENA)