OCDE - Building Trust Through Education The Common Thread

The Common Thread Building trust through education Spotlight #21 Education plays a vital role in fostering trust – both in institutions and among individuals. It does so by developing foundational skills such as literacy and numeracy, nurturing the values and attitudes needed for democratic participation, and ensuring that education institutions themselves earn and sustain learners’ trust. Recent global developments show why this is a pivotal moment for trust. Beyond external pressures, many democracies today are facing internal challenges, such as declining voter turnout, widening inequality, and increasing fragmentation. Ideological divides can fuel both political and affective polarisation, where people begin to strongly distrust , and even dislike, those associated with opposing views. This erosion of trust weakens the threads that bind societies together, slowing innovation and undermining collective problem-solving. Education offers powerful tools to counteract these tendencies and reinforce the common thread of trust.

Centre for Educational Research and Innovation The Trends Shaping Education Spotlights series has been discontinued. Spotlights created with data from Trends Shaping Education publications are now published under the OECD Education Spotlights series. Previous issues are still available at: https://doi.org/10.1787/e6d23b76-en.Spotlight 21 - Building Trust Through Education 2

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025

What is trust and why does it matter? Trust has always mattered - for individuals, communities, economies, and the health of democracy. It shapes how people engage with institutions, how societies hold together, and how economies function efficiently. But recent global challenges – from climate threats and geopolitical tensions to economic uncertainty – have brought its role into sharper focus . These crises have tested governments’ ability to respond effectively, transparently, and equitably, placing public institutions under growing scrutiny. Data from the OECD Survey on Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions 2023 (OECD Trust Survey) show that in many countries, people are now more likely to

tested governments’ ability to respond effectively, transparently, and equitably, placing public institutions under growing scrutiny. Data from the OECD Survey on Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions 2023 (OECD Trust Survey) show that in many countries, people are now more likely to distrust than trust their government. Moreover, trust is unevenly distributed: younger and less educated people tend to express lower confidence in public institutions (OECD, 2024 a). Falling voter turnout and rising political divides reflect this unease and raise questions about institutional legitimacy and citizen participation in democratic societies.

Reinforcing the thread of trust will be essential to strengthen democracy, tackle shared problems, and help people navigate change (OECD, 2025; OECD, 2024a). Education has a vital role to play in this process: trust does not just happen, it is something we learn, build, and pass on. This report explores how trust education can nurture trust from an early age through the foundational skills and civic knowledge people acquire, and thorough their lived experience of reliable relationships and institutions.

Trust means having confidence in those around us – neighbours, classmates, even strangers – or in institutions like governments, schools, and the legal system . These different forms of trust are closely linked. Data from the OECD Trust Survey 2023 show that countries where people report higher trust in other people also tend to report higher trust in government (Figure 1). This suggests that both forms of trust may be influenced by common factors and could also reinforce each other (OECD, 2022). Interpersonal trust Interpersonal trust includes both the trust we place in people we know , and a broader belief that most people will act honestly and cooperatively (Borgonovi and Burns, 2015). It m atters for both individual and societal

Interpersonal trust Interpersonal trust includes both the trust we place in people we know , and a broader belief that most people will act honestly and cooperatively (Borgonovi and Burns, 2015). It m atters for both individual and societal well-being: i n the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills 2023, it was among the strongest predictors of life satisfaction and psychological well-being. This may be because trust supports close relationships – an important buffer against mental health difficulties. Trust also reflects a broader belief Figure 1. The correlation between trust in government and trust in other people Share of people in OECD countries that trust the national government (y-axis) by share that trust other people (x-axis), (both responses 6-10 on an 11-point scale), 2023

Source: OECD (2024), OECD Survey on Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions, https://doi.org/10.1787/9a20554b-en

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R² = 0.1909 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 % trust in government % trust in other peopleSpotlight 21 - Building Trust Through Education 3

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025 in others’ good intentions, which may foster a sense of contentment (OECD, 2024b).

Interpersonal trust helps societies function more cohesively. It strengthens social bonds

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025 in others’ good intentions, which may foster a sense of contentment (OECD, 2024b).

Interpersonal trust helps societies function more cohesively. It strengthens social bonds and encourages cooperation, reciprocity, and open dialogue – including within diverse communities. Where trust is higher, it is often easier to find common ground, work towards shared goals, and respond to collective challenges (Borhan, 2025; Borgonovi and Burns, 2015). Institutional trust Institutional trust is the confidence people have that public bodies will act fairly, reliably, and in line with their expectations of positive behaviour (OECD, 2024a). Political trust is a closely related idea, focusing more on confidence in the political system and culture (Sum and Janmaat, 2024).

A baseline of Institutional trust is essential for democratic societies to function . It helps governments respond to crises by increasing people’s willingness to cooperate, follow rules, or accept difficult trade -offs. Those who trust their government are more likely to support public spending and vote in elections. Greater trust in government could therefore help reverse the decline in voter turnout observed in many democracies since the 1960s (OECD, 2024a ; Borgonovi and Burns, 2015; Sum and Janmaat, 2024) . This presupposes, however, that institutions are indeed trustworthy , i.e. that they act competently, fairly, and in the public interest.

This raises an important nuance: low trust doesn’t always mean citizens are disengaged. Low levels of trust can also reflect what researchers call sceptical trust – a sign that people expect more from their institutions and are willing to hold them accountable (OECD, 2024a ). In the OECD

doesn’t always mean citizens are disengaged. Low levels of trust can also reflect what researchers call sceptical trust – a sign that people expect more from their institutions and are willing to hold them accountable (OECD, 2024a ). In the OECD Trust Survey 2023, while people with low trust in national government s were less likely to vote, they were more likely to engage in direct or expressive forms of participation like signing petitions or joining demonstrations (OECD, 2024a ). In fact, when institutions underperform or drift away from democratic principles, t his kind of scrutiny and contestation may not be a threat to democracy but one of the ways citizens seek to protect it.

Education can foster trust - including sceptical trust - by equipping people to read and assess information critically , understand their rights, and make informed decisions about where to place their trust. It also builds political agency: the belief that individuals can influence decisions affecting their lives, a key driver of trust (OECD, 2024a, Kiess 2021). Education institutions , in turn, play a formative role in shaping how young people view and engage with institutions throughout their lives.

Trust: A currency for economic growth Beyond its social value, trust is also an economic asset. By fostering collaboration, interpersonal trust reduces transaction costs, supports both formal and informal lending, and strengthens local economies (Borgonovi and Burns, 2015; Putnam, 2000; Smith, 2020). At a broader level, high er trust is linked to greater productivity, stronger investment, and more resilient economic growth (Smith, 2020). By contrast, feelings of exclusion and financial insecurity can erode trust, weakening cooperation and reducing economic opportunity ( OECD,

2024a). Institutional trust ensures that rules are applied fairly, contracts are enforced

investment, and more resilient economic growth (Smith, 2020). By contrast, feelings of exclusion and financial insecurity can erode trust, weakening cooperation and reducing economic opportunity ( OECD, 2024a). Institutional trust ensures that rules are applied fairly, contracts are enforced reliably, and that policies are carried out predictably. When citizens believe institutions act in the public interest, they are more willing to pay taxes, comply with regulations, and invest in the future. Conversely, corruption, cronyism, and weak enforcement undermine trust, discouraging innovation and slowing growth (OECD, 2024a). Taken together, interpersonal trust builds the social fabric for everyday exchange, while institutional trust provides the stability and fairness that sustain markets over time. Thriving economies depend on both.Spotlight 21 - Building Trust Through Education 4

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025

In addition to facing major external pressures, many democracies are also contending with internal challenges such as declining voter turnout, rising unrest, and growing polarisation. Figure 2 shows that across 31 European democracies, the combined vote share of far-left and far-right parties increased from around 11% in the early 1990s to almost 25% in 2022. While voting for more extreme parties is often a sign of underlying polarisation, their growing influence in parliaments and public debate can further deepen division and distrust, limiting governments’ ability to reach consensus on important policy issues (OECD, 2024a ). Ideological divides can also fuel “affective polarisation”, where people begin to strongly dislike or distrust those associated with opposing political views (Iyengar et al., 2019). In this way, polarisation becomes both a symptom and a driver of declining trust in democratic systems and in other people. Figure 2. A polarised political landscape

people begin to strongly dislike or distrust those associated with opposing political views (Iyengar et al., 2019). In this way, polarisation becomes both a symptom and a driver of declining trust in democratic systems and in other people. Figure 2. A polarised political landscape Vote share of parties by category, 31 European countries (1993-2022)

Note: Vote shares are weighted by population size.

Source: OECD (2025), Trends Shaping Education 2025, https://doi.org/10.1787/ee6587fd-en, based on Rooduijin et al., (2023)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Far-right Far-left The big picture Trust in a changing democratic landscape Global trends in political participation highlight the urgent need to strengthen trust in public institutions. Voter turnout has steadily declined across world regions since the 1960s, reflecting growing dissatisfaction with the state of democracy. At the same time, many democratic societies have seen rising social and political polarisation, which can undermine both interpersonal and institutional trust.Spotlight 21 - Building Trust Through Education 5

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025

The role of education in building trust OECD data show that trust and education are closely interrelated. This section explores how education can foster trust by modelling ‘trustworthy’ institutional practices , building strong foundational skills, and supporting civic knowledge, values and attitudes. Educational institutions that earn and support trust Educational experiences influence young people’s expectations about how others – and especially strangers – are likely to behave. Because schools and early learning centres are often the first institutions children interact with regularly, they play a key role in shaping trust.

Educational institutions that earn and support trust Educational experiences influence young people’s expectations about how others – and especially strangers – are likely to behave. Because schools and early learning centres are often the first institutions children interact with regularly, they play a key role in shaping trust. The learning environment matters – including how students, teachers, and other staff relate to one another. In the Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (2023) , students who reported strong relationships with their peers and teachers, a sense of belonging, and positive emotions at school reported higher levels of interpersonal trust. Conversely, involvement in bullying – whether as victim, perpetrator, or both – was linked to lower trust (OECD, 2024b). These findings suggest that schools can support the development of trust by creating space for relationship-building and by implementing comprehensive antibullying strategies (OECD, 2024b). Educators and institutions can also help build trust by showing they are trustworthy. Finkenauer (2025) shows how three core ingredients of trust – competence, honesty, and reliability – apply to education settings: • Competence: Educators and learning communities demonstrate effective teaching, a safe and supportive environment, and responsiveness to learners’ needs. • Honesty: Staff are transparent about how they make decisions on issues like grading and discipline and acknowledge mistakes when they occur. • Reliability: Teachers and leaders consistently follow through on commitments and provide support even in times of crisis (e.g., the recent COVID-19 pandemic). These principles echo OECD findings on what drives trust in government – reliability, responsiveness, openness, integrity, and fairness (OECD, 2024a ). They also matter for student outcomes. For example, r ecent research suggests that students facing financial hardship are 10–15 percentage points more likely to drop

drives trust in government – reliability, responsiveness, openness, integrity, and fairness (OECD, 2024a ). They also matter for student outcomes. For example, r ecent research suggests that students facing financial hardship are 10–15 percentage points more likely to drop out if they have low institutional trust (Finkenauer et al, 2023) . Strengthening trust within schools and education systems could therefore play a key role in reducing dropout and improving civic outcomes over time.

Lifelong learning approaches that foster strong foundational skills Spending more time in education – and gaining stronger literacy and numeracy skills – is linked to higher trust in other people and in public institutions. In the Survey of Adult Skills 2023 (PIAAC 2023), just 25% of adults with low numeracy proficiency (level 1 or below) across OECD countries reported high interpersonal trust, compared to 51% of those with high proficiency (level 4 or above) (Figure 3). Adults with stronger skills were also more likely to volunteer and report that “people ‘like them” have a say in politics (OECD 2024e). This underlines how foundational skills support not only trust but broader civic and social engagement.

Cognitive and analytical abilities such as literacy and numeracy help people interpret information, judge others’ trustworthiness, and make sense of complex social, political and economic systems. These competencies — built not only in schools but also thro ugh higher education and adult learning — are a crucial foundation for both interpersonal and institutional trust (Borgonovi and Burns, 2015; Hooghe et al., 2015). Analysis of PIAAC 2012 data shows that much of the “trust advantage” enjoyed by more educat ed adults reflects the skills their education builds: literacy accounted for roughly one quarter of the trust gap between university graduates and those with lowerHooghe et al., 2015). Analysis of PIAAC 2012 data shows that much of the “trust advantage” enjoyed by more educat ed adults reflects the skills their education builds: literacy accounted for roughly one quarter of the trust gap between university graduates and those with lowersecondary education. The effect was particularly strong for less -educated adults, suggesting that improving basic skills can support not only growth but also democratic participation (Borgonovi and Burns, 2015).Spotlight 21 - Building Trust Through Education 6

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025

Beyond these broader effects, skills such as literacy, numeracy and critical thinking underpin ‘sceptical’ trust, i.e. trust that is informed, reflective, and open to scrutiny. They empower people to evaluate the actions of public institutions, engage meaningfully in civic life, and navigate an increasingly complex information environment (OECD, 2024a; OECD 2024e).

Yet proficiency in these essential skills is stagnating or declining in many OECD countries, with widening gaps between lower and higher performers. Between PIAAC 2012 and 2023, literacy scores fell significantly in 11 of 27 participating economies and remained stable in 14; numeracy declined in 7 and was unchanged in 12. The steepest drops were among vulnerable groups such as adults with below-uppersecondary education, immigrants, and older adults (OECD 2024e). Similar patterns appear in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA) 2022, where average performance of 15-year-old students across the OECD dropped by almost 15 points in mathematics and 10 points in reading compared to 2018. While mathematics scores dropped sharply in 2022, reading performance has been eroding gradually for more than a decade, with average results across OECD

OECD dropped by almost 15 points in mathematics and 10 points in reading compared to 2018. While mathematics scores dropped sharply in 2022, reading performance has been eroding gradually for more than a decade, with average results across OECD countries peaking around 2009–2012.

This evidence highlights that civic education and trustworthy learning environments must go hand-in-hand with sustained efforts to strengthen foundational skills across the life course. Improving the quality of education for all, and targeting literacy and numeracy skills in particular, builds the cognitive and socialemotional capacities on which trust depends. Expanding access to higher education can raise overall trust levels, while targeted adult-learning programmes can help close persistent “trust gaps” between population groups (Borgonovi and Burns, 2015). Civic education that integrates formal and experiential learning Alongside core skills, many education systems are strengthening civic education to address growing concerns about the health of democracy. Civic education is broadly understood as helping learners develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to participate actively, responsibly, and critically in democratic life. Unlike other subjects, it often explicitly aims to shape values and attitudes – such as openness, responsibility, and respect for others – that guide learners' behaviour and actions in complex, uncertain and diverse societies ( Claes and Hooghe, 2017; Borhan, 2025). Civic education can take many forms. ‘Cognitive’ approach es focus on building students’ understanding of democratic systems and institutions, such as voting procedures, parliaments, and courts. This knowledge is thought to foster trust and engagement indirectly, by helping students better understand how the political system works. For example, Claes and Hooghe (2017) found that young adults who had received this type of civic education during secondary school reported

thought to foster trust and engagement indirectly, by helping students better understand how the political system works. For example, Claes and Hooghe (2017) found that young adults who had received this type of civic education during secondary school reported higher levels of political trust in the ir early Figure 3. People with stronger numeracy skills show higher levels of interpersonal trust Adults aged 25-65 reporting positive outcomes for trust, by numeracy proficiency level

Source: OECD (2024 e), Do Adults Have the Skills They Need to Thrive in a Changing World?: Survey of Adult Skills 2023 , Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b263dc5d-en.

0 20 40 60 80 100 % Level 1 and below Level 4 and above TotalSpotlight 21 - Building Trust Through Education 7

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025 twenties. This knowledge can also provide an essential foundation for more experiential forms of civic learning, such as debating social issues or participating in school decision-making. These are explored in the next section.

Deep dive: Learning democracy by doing Students don’t just learn about democracy – they learn it by doing. Y oung people who have opportunities to discuss social and political issues openly and participate in civic activities at school or university tend to report higher political trust later in lif e. These experiences also boost political knowledge, agency, and participation.

They complement formal civic education by giving learners space to form their identities as citizens, practise democratic skills, and see democratic values in action (Claes and Hooghe, 2017; Sum and Janmaat, 2024). An open classroom climate An open classroom climate is a learning environment where students feel safe to express their views, confident that their teachers and peers will respect their opinions, and where diverse perspectives are welcomed. Research shows that cultivating this climate is a powerful

An open classroom climate An open classroom climate is a learning environment where students feel safe to express their views, confident that their teachers and peers will respect their opinions, and where diverse perspectives are welcomed. Research shows that cultivating this climate is a powerful first step to advance civic learning. What matters most for building trust and civic outcomes is not just feeling heard but being encouraged to explore political and social issues. This can include debates, informal discussions, student -led learning, or giving students a say in classroom decisions – such as proposing discussion topics or shaping group projects. This can happen in civic education, but also in other subjects (Borhan, 2025; Campbell, 2008; Claes and Hooghe, 2017; Sum and Janmaat, 2024). Evidence suggests that experiencing an open classroom climate in adolescence can positively influence political trust into early adulthood (Sum and Janmaat, 2024; Claes and Hooghe, 2017) . More broadly, it’s one of the most effective strategies for developing students’ civic knowledge, skills, and attitudes. It can also help to narrow political engagement linked to socioeconomic background by giving all students chance to practise civic participation . This may be especially powerful for those who have fewer opportunities to practice deliberation and political debate in their home lives (Campbell, 2008; Schultz et al., 2023; Borhan, 2025). Yet ICCS 2022 data show these practices remain rare. Fewer than half of lower -secondary students surveyed said teachers often encouraged them to express opinions on political or social issues, and just 12% reported that students often raised current political events for discussion (Figure 4).

Classroom discussions on contested social and political issues can be challenging for teachers — especially in polarised contex ts where students and their families may hold sharply

political or social issues, and just 12% reported that students often raised current political events for discussion (Figure 4).

Classroom discussions on contested social and political issues can be challenging for teachers — especially in polarised contex ts where students and their families may hold sharply opposing views (OECD, 2025). Topics like gender, sexuality, race, or immigration may be deeply personal for students, requiring teachers to manage emotions as well as content (Forrest, 2009; Vincent, 2019). Moreover, research shows that teachers working in disadvantaged schools can face additional barriers to fostering an open classroom climate such as heavier workloads, fewer resources, and concerns about Civic education in the OECD Civic education – sometimes called civics, political education, or social studies – has gained prominence in recent years. All OECD countries surveyed in PISA 2018 include it in lower and upper secondary levels, but delivery varies . While some countries teach it as a standalone subject, the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study 2022 (ICCS 2022) found that a cross -curricular approach is more common, with civic and social engagement addressed across multiple subjects. Many countries have set national goals for civic education, but research suggests that in some cases, a strong focus on core subjects means civics is sidelined or seen as less important. Access to civic learning also remains uneven. Socio -economic background is a strong predictor of civic knowledge across countries, and gaps are also seen by gender, language, and immigrant background. In ICCS 2022, students whose parents had completed tertiary education scored 47 points higher in civic knowledge, on average , than those whose parents had lower attainment (Schultz et al, 2023).

Source: Borhan, H. (2025), “Civic education as a pathway to inclusive societies” engagement”, OECD Education Working

tertiary education scored 47 points higher in civic knowledge, on average , than those whose parents had lower attainment (Schultz et al, 2023).

Source: Borhan, H. (2025), “Civic education as a pathway to inclusive societies” engagement”, OECD Education Working Papers, https://doi.org/10.1787/3f128be8-en.Spotlight 21 - Building Trust Through Education 8

OECD EDUCATION SPOTLIGHTS © OECD 2025 maintaining classroom order (Sum and Janmaat, 2025; Borhan, 2025). Teachers need expertise to raise controversial issues strategically, welcome diverse viewpoints, and address speech that conflict s with institutional or democratic values. Without preparation and support, they may avoid such discussions altogether (Vincent, 2019; Forrest, 2009). Pace’s (2022) framework offers practical tools to foster supportive climate s and lead difficult conversations (see Figure 5). Figure 5. A framework for teaching controversial issues

Source: Pace ( 2022), Teaching controversial issues,

https://teachingcontroversies.com/framework/ (accessed 18 July 2025) Opportunities for civic engagement Student councils and other civic activities take the "learning by doing" approach a step further. By participating in decisions or organising around issues they care about, young people practise citizenship, experience democratic processes firsthand , and build skills like deliberation, negotiation and voting (Kiess, 2022; Claes and Hooghe, 2017; Borhan, 2025).

Crucially, feeling heard and confident in participating in decision making builds political agency – the feeling that we can influence decisions that affect us. OECD Trust Survey 2023 data suggest this matters more for trust in government than income, age, or gender. Across the OECD, nearly 70% of those who felt

participating in decision making builds political agency – the feeling that we can influence decisions that affect us. OECD Trust Survey 2023 data suggest this matters more for trust in government than income, age, or gender. Across the OECD, nearly 70% of those who felt they had a say in what government does reported high trust, compared to just 22% of those who felt powerless. People who feel capable of engaging in politics also tend to trust more, and this confidence is more common among those with higher levels of education

(OECD, 2024a).

Research suggests that engagement activities can increase political interest and trust – and, in some cases, voting. But it can also foster more critical or confrontational forms of participation, such as protests or strikes. In this sense, providing engagement opportunities from an early age can support democratic renewal — but can also empower young people to challenge institutions when needed (Kiess, 2022).

Student councils are often the first experience children have with democracy, and many students take part in them. In the ICCS 2022, 78% Figure 4. Open classroom climates in 30 countries Percentage of students reporting that the following things happen when discussing political or social issues in class, ICCS 2022 average Source: Schultz et al. (2023), ‮‭ ‭ ‭‮ ‭‫   ‬ ‮ ‮‭ ‭ ‮‫ ‭ ‬‮ ‬ ‬ ‬ ‬ ‮

‭‮ ‮‭ ‮ ‬ ‬  0 20 40 60 80 100 Students [bring up] current political events for discussion in class Teachers encourage students to discuss the issues with people having different opinions Teachers present several sides of the issues when ex plaining them in class Teachers encourage students to make up their own minds Students ex press opinions in class even when their opinions are different from most of the other students. Teachers encourage students to ex press their opinions. % N ev er Rarely Sometimes OftenSpotlight 21 - B