OCDE - Enhancing adolescent social and emotional well-being

Child Well-being Policy Paper Enhancing adolescent social and emotional well-being OECD Papers on Well-being and Inequalities - July 2026 - No. 402 

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

See the paper series The OECD Papers on Well-being and Inequalities Series – managed by the OECD Centre on Well-being, Inclusion, Sustainability and Equal Opportunity (WISE) – features papers on the measurement agenda for well-being, inclusion, sustainability and equal opportunity as well as papers s eeking to deepen the understanding of the drivers of these issues, the ways in which they interact and how they evolve. These papers are prepared by OECD staff, external experts or by outside consultants working on OECD projects. This work is issued under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD and does not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD Member countries. The papers are generally available only in their original language – English or French – with a summary in the other. Comments on Policy Papers are welcomed and may be sent to wellbeing@oecd.org. This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the stat us of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. The release of this policy paper has been authorised by Romina Boarini, Director of the OECD Centre on Well-being, Inclusion, Sustainability and Equal Opportunity (WISE).

© OECD 2026

Child Well-being Policy Paper This paper provides an evidence base to support the design of strategies to impr ove adolescent wellbeing that are tailored to boys and girls. Drawing on cross-national data, it identi fies key trends, differences between girls and boys, and distinct patterns of vulnerability, while highlighting the role that

and relaxed”, 3) ”I have felt active and vigorous ”, 4) ”I woke up feeling fresh and rested ” and 5) ”My daily life has been filled with things that interest me”. For each of the five statements, the response options “All the time”, “Most of the time”, “More than half of the time ”, “Less than half of the time ”, “Some of the time” and “At no time” are assigned scores of decreasing value, which are then summed into the overall Ind ex. For more details on index construction, see https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/WHO -UCN-MSDMHE-2024.01. “11-, 13and 15-year-old school children ” refers to children aged 11, 13 and 15 attending mainstream schools. 2 Antisocial behaviours are commonly understood as behaviours, both criminal and non-criminal, that cause harm or nuisance to others, including threats, harassment, drug use, and vandalism ( Government of the United Kingdom, 2023[192]). 3 Gender norms refer to the informal social rules that shape gender-based expectat ions, while gender stereotypes refer to widely held, fixed and highly generalised beliefs and expec tations about gender (Brussino and McBrien, 2022[51]).Child Well-being Policy Paper Enhancing adolescent social and emotional wellbeing OECD Papers on Well-being and Inequalities - July 2026 - No. 40 Adolescence is a critical developmental period characterised by rapid physical, cognitive and psychosocial changes that are often accompanied by declines in social and emotional well-being. This paper argues for an approach to promoting adolescents’ well-being that is tailored specifically to boys and girls and presents a cross-national analysis of social and emotional outcomes among adolescent girls and boys using data from the OECD Child Well-being Data Portal. It documents key trends, gaps between boys and girls and distinct patterns of vulnerability and examines how norms and stereotypes shape different well-being outcomes for girls and boys. The paper highlights the importance of supportive environments across families, schools, neighbourhoods and digital spaces, and shows how policies can address boys’

Child Well-being Policy Paper This paper provides an evidence base to support the design of strategies to impr ove adolescent wellbeing that are tailored to boys and girls. Drawing on cross-national data, it identi fies key trends, differences between girls and boys, and distinct patterns of vulnerability, while highlighting the role that norms of femininity and masculinity and related stereotypes can play in shaping these outcomes. The analysis points to specific areas where policy action is needed – such as addressing higher levels of academic disengagement and risk-taking behaviours among boys, and greater exposure to body image pressures and online harms among girls. It also emphasises the role of supportive environments across families, schools, neighbourhoods and digital spaces in mitigating these risks. OECD Papers on Well-being and Inequalities 3

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Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. By using this work, you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). Attribution – you must cite the work. Translations – you must cite the original work, identify changes to the or iginal and add the following text: In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation, only the text of original work should be considered valid. Adaptations – you must cite the original work and add the following text: This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD and the European Commission. The opinions expressed and argument s employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries or the European Commission. Third-party material – the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work. If using such material, you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement. You must not use the OECD logo nor the European Commission logo, visual identity or cover image without express permission or

documents key trends, gaps between boys and girls and distinct patterns of vulnerability and examines how norms and stereotypes shape different well-being outcomes for girls and boys. The paper highlights the importance of supportive environments across families, schools, neighbourhoods and digital spaces, and shows how policies can address boys’ and girls’ heightened risk for specific challenges – such as boys’ higher academic disengagement and involvement in physical fighting, and girls’ greater body image concerns and vulnerability to online harms – while strengthening protective factors for all adolescents.

Third-party material – the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work. If using such material, you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement. You must not use the OECD logo nor the European Commission logo, visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD or the European Commission endorse your use of the work. Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled b y arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arb itration (PCA) Arbitration Rules 2012. The seat of arbitration shall be Paris (France). The number of arbitrators shall be one.4 

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

Adolescence is a critical developmental period characterised by rapid physical, cognitive and psychosocial changes that are often accompanied by declines in social and emotional well-being. This paper argues for an approach to promoting adolescents’ well-being that is tailored specifically to boys and girls and presents a cross-national analysis of social and emotional outcomes among adolescent girls and boys using data from the OECD Child Well-being Data Portal. It documents key trends, gaps between boys and girls and distinct patterns of vulnerability and examines how norms and stereotypes shape different well-being outcomes for girls and boys. The paper highlights the importance of supportive environments across families, schools, neighbourhoods and digital spaces, and shows how policies can address boys’ and girls’ heightened risk for specific challenges – such as boys’ higher academic disengagement and involvement in physical fighting, and girls’ greater body image concerns and vulnerability to online harms – while strengthening protective factors for all adolescents. Abstract 5

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

L’adolescence est une période clé du développement, caractérisée par des changements rapides sur les plans physique, cognitif et psychosocial, souvent accompagnés d’un recul du bien-être social et émotionnel. Ce

L’adolescence est une période clé du développement, caractérisée par des changements rapides sur les plans physique, cognitif et psychosocial, souvent accompagnés d’un recul du bien-être social et émotionnel. Ce document plaide en faveur d’une approche pour promouvoir le bien-être des adolescents qui soit adaptée aux réalités des filles et des garçons et présente une analyse comparative internationale des résultats en matière de bien-être social et émotionnel chez les adolescentes et les adolescents, à partir des données du Portail de l’OCDE sur le bien-être des enfants. Il met en évidence les principales tendances, les écarts entre les sexes et des profils de vulnérabilité distincts, et examine comment les normes et stéréotypes de genre façonnent différemment les résultats de bien-être des filles et des garçons. Le document souligne l’importance d’environnements de soutien au sein de la famille, de l’école, du quartier et des espaces numériques, et montre comment des politiques peuvent répondre aux risques accrus auxquels les garçons et les filles sont confrontés face à certains défis spécifiques – telles que le décrochage scolaire et l’implication plus fréquente des garçons dans les bagarres, ou les préoccupations plus marquées des filles concernant l’image corporelle et leur vulnérabilité accrue aux risques en ligne – tout en renforçant les facteurs de protection pour l’ensemble des adolescents. Résumé6 

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

This paper was prepared by the OECD Centre on Well Being, Inclusion, Sustainability and Equ al Opportunity (WISE Centre). It was developed under the leadership of Romina Boarini (D irector, OECD

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

This paper was prepared by the OECD Centre on Well Being, Inclusion, Sustainability and Equ al Opportunity (WISE Centre). It was developed under the leadership of Romina Boarini (D irector, OECD WISE Centre) and under the supervision of Olivier Thévenon (Head of the Child Wel l-being Unit, OECD WISE Centre). The paper was written by Nora Brüning, Marine Matsumura and Olivier Thévenon (all OECD WISE Centre). Anne-Lise Faron (OECD WISE Centre) prepared the paper for publication, and Martine Zaïda and Taylor Kelly (OECD WISE Centre) provided valuable support and advice on communication and publication. The authors would like to thank Marion Devaux (OECD, Health Division), Francesca Gotttschalk (OECD), and Noémie Le Donnée (OECD Directorate for Education) and Romina Boarini (OECD WISE) for their valuable comments on earlier version. Acknowledgements 7

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

Table of contents OECD Papers on Well-being and Inequalities 2

Abstract 4 Résumé 5 Acknowledgements 6 Executive summary 9 Implications for policy and evidence 9

1. Introduction 11

2. How do social and emotional well-being outcomes differ between adolescent boys and girls? 14 2.1 Life satisfaction is declining among adolescents, especially for girls 14 2.2 Girls’ mental health issues tend to be internalised, whereas boys struggle more with externalising behaviours 15 2.3 Adolescent girls report lower resilience against life stressors than boys, making them more vulnerable to low social and emotional well-being 19

3. How do femininity and masculinity norms shape adolescents’ expectations, behaviours, and well-being? 21 3.1. Restrictive masculinity norms can inhibit help-seeking, and lead to academic

vulnerable to low social and emotional well-being 19

3. How do femininity and masculinity norms shape adolescents’ expectations, behaviours, and well-being? 21 3.1. Restrictive masculinity norms can inhibit help-seeking, and lead to academic disengagement and externalising behaviours in adolescent boys 25

4. Supporting adolescent social and emotional well-being at home, in schools, in communities and online 28 4.1. Ensuring adolescents feel supported in the family and home environment 30 4.2. Addressing barriers to learning affecting boys and girls and fostering socio-emotio nal skills at school 32 4.3. Making the community and physical environment safer and more supportive for adolescents 35 4.4. Creating safe digital environments for and with boys and girls 368 

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

5. Conclusions 40

References 43 Notes 58

Figures Figure 1. The OECD Child Well-Being Measurement Framework 12 Figure 2. More girls than boys report low life satisfaction 15 Figure 3. Adolescent girls are at greater risk of developing depressive disorders 17 Figure 4. Boys are more likely to be diagnosed with conduct disorders 18 Figure 5. Adolescent boys report they are more resistant to stress than girls 20 Figure 6. In most countries, adolescent girls are more dissatisfied with their body than boys 23 Figure 7. Adolescent boys are more likely to engage in physical fighting 26 Figure 8. More adolescent girls find it difficult to talk to their parents 31 Figure 9. Adolescent girls feel more schoolwork pressure than their male peers 33 Figure 10. Girls are more likely than boys to have gotten upset the last time they encountered negative content online 38

Boxes Box 1. What environments shape adolescents’ social and emotional well-being? 12 Box 2. How do sexualisation and sexual harassment contribute to lower well-being in adolescent girls? 24

content online 38

Boxes Box 1. What environments shape adolescents’ social and emotional well-being? 12 Box 2. How do sexualisation and sexual harassment contribute to lower well-being in adolescent girls? 24 Box 3. Can some online spaces encourage antisocial behaviours in adolescent boys? 39 9

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

The paper examines policy challenges in supporting the social and emotional well-being of adolescents, a period marked by heightened vulnerability and distinct risks across popul ation groups. It highlights the need to understand these differences and the environments shaping them in order to desi gn effective policy responses. Drawing on evidence on young people aged approximately 11 to 15, the paper focuses on differences between boys and girls in reported well-being, mental health, and behaviours . It examines how developmental processes interact with social expectations and with the family, school, community and digital environments, and discusses the implications for policy design, service delivery and measurement. The analysis shows that boys and girls experience distinct patterns of risk i n terms of socio-emotional difficulties. Among 11-year-olds, 13-year-olds and 15-year-olds, girls are between 1.65 and 2.5 times more likely than boys to report low life satisfaction and face higher risks of anxiety and depression, alongside greater concerns about body image and higher rates of self-harm. Boys, by contrast, are more exposed to externalising problems such as conduct disorders, are more likely to engage in aggressive and risk-taking behaviours and face a greater risk of death by suicide. Social norms emerge as an important factor shaping these outcomes. While norm s can provide structure and guidance during identity formation, they may also impose restrictive expectati ons that conflict with adolescents’ experiences. Pressures related to app earance can intensify body dissatisfaction and social comparison, while other expectations may discourage help-seeking, contribute to educational disengagement and increase behavioural risks. In some circumstances, adherenc e to these norms may itself become a coping mechanism. Implications for policy and evidence

adolescents’ experiences. Pressures related to app earance can intensify body dissatisfaction and social comparison, while other expectations may discourage help-seeking, contribute to educational disengagement and increase behavioural risks. In some circumstances, adherenc e to these norms may itself become a coping mechanism. Implications for policy and evidence • Support should be strengthened across the multiple environments shaping adolescents ’ lives. Families remain central to adolescent well-being, yet many face constraints in time and material resources, and around one-third of adolescents across the OECD report difficulties communicating with their parents. Schools provide structured settings for learning and support, community spaces offer opportunities for social connection and positive role models, and digital envi ronments increasingly influence norms, expectations and social comparisons, calling for greater attention to safety and design. • Prevention and early identification should be prioritised through tiered systems of sup port. Lowthreshold initiatives and mechanisms to detect early signs of distress can help address difficulties before they become more severe. Strengthening families’ ability to recognise em erging problems and communicate effectively with their children, alongside expanding school-based an d community-based support, can improve timely access to assistance and prevent diff iculties from becoming persistent. • The evidence base on effective and tailored interventions needs to be strengthened. More research is required to better understand the distinct challenges faced by boys and girl s, identify effective approaches across multiple domains of adolescents’ lives, and ensure timely access to appropriate Executive summary10 

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

support. Particular attention could be given to understanding how to prevent antisocial behaviours and how to promote healthy digital experiences through supportive parenting practices and safer online environments. 11

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Recent evidence points to a marked decline in adolescent social and emotional well -being and mental health across nearly all OECD countries, raising growing concern among policymakers and researchers

online environments. 11

ENHANCING ADOLESCENT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING © OECD 2026

Recent evidence points to a marked decline in adolescent social and emotional well -being and mental health across nearly all OECD countries, raising growing concern among policymakers and researchers alike (McGorry et al., 2024 [1]; 2024 [2]; OECD, 2026 [3]). In almost all OECD countries, adolescents today report lower levels of life satisfaction and poorer mental health than they did a decade ago (OECD, 2025[4]). These trends do not affect boys and girls equally. On average, girls are around twice as likely as boys to report low life satisfaction and experience poorer mental health, with steeper declines over time (World Health Organisation, 2024 [5]; Marquez et al., 2024 [6]). More broadly, sex disparities extend across many dimensions of adolescents’ social and emotional well -being, reflecting the distinct but overlapping risks that boys and girls face during adolescence. Adolescence is a critical developmental period marked by rapid physical , cognitive and psychosocial changes, alongside heightened exposure to new challenges such as peer influence, identity formation and increasing academic expectations. These transitions are commonly associated with a decline in social and emotional well-being, understood as the ways young people think, feel and behave i n relation to themselves and others. Social and emotional well-being encompasses the development of emotional security and self-regulation, the experience of positive interpersonal and soci al outcomes, broader subjective well-being – including life evaluations, affective states (such as happiness, joy, sadness and stress) and a sense of living well – and mental health (OECD, 2021[7]; 2026[8]). Given the long-term consequences of social and emotional well-being in adolescence for a wide range of adult outcomes – including mental and subjective well-being, physical health, economic stab ility and employability – adolescence represents a critical developmental period. It is a time when y oung people need support in navigating risks from environmental risks in the settings whe re they live, learn, and

adult outcomes – including mental and subjective well-being, physical health, economic stab ility and employability – adolescence represents a critical developmental period. It is a time when y oung people need support in navigating risks from environmental risks in the settings whe re they live, learn, and socialise, but also a key window of opportunity to foster positive experiences, heal thy behaviours, and trajectories that support long-term well-being and successful adult lives. However, positive developmental experiences depend on the extent to which adolescents are supported by their environ ments. As highlighted in th e OECD Child Well-Being Measurement Framework (Box 1), this includes supportive relationships within the family (with parents, caregivers and siblings), at school (with peers, teachers and educators, and other support staff), in the wider community (with neighbouring peers and other community members), and in digital spaces . During adolescence, these environments can also become sources of increasing pressure to conform to norms and stereotypes about males and females, cr eating distinct opportunities and challenges for boys’ and girls’ social and emotional well-being.

1. Introduction12 

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Box 1 . What environments shape adolescents’ social and emotional well-being? Research on child well-being increasingly recognises the importance of the environments an d settings in which children and adolescents grow up, requiring a multilevel or “ecological” approach covering both child well-being outcomes and potential drivers and influences (Bronfenbrenner , 1979[9]; 1989[10]; Minkkinen, 2013[11]). Rooted in the understanding that children should be able to both enjoy a “good” childhood in the here and now, and have the opportunity to develop skills and abili ties that allow them to prepare for the future, the OECD Child Well-Being Measurement Framework integrates the different dimensions of child well-being – material well-being, physical health, social, emotional and cultural wellbeing, and cognitive development and educational well-being – recognising them as largely

to prepare for the future, the OECD Child Well-Being Measurement Framework integrates the different dimensions of child well-being – material well-being, physical health, social, emotional and cultural wellbeing, and cognitive development and educational well-being – recognising them as largely interdependent. The Framework ’s multi-level structure further incorporates the drivers shaping child well-being, including the activities, behaviours and relationships children in the ir different daily environments. Social, emotional and cultural outcomes cover outcomes relating to children and ad olescents’ behaviours, emotions, and thoughts and feelings towards themselves and others, as well as related outcomes tied to social and cultural identities. This area covers many of the more “subjective” aspects of children’s well -being, ranging from basic emotional security and children’s sense of safety to thei r sense of identity and social identity, their sense of belonging, and their ov er-arching life satisfaction. It also covers children’s socio-emotional skills, mental health status, and psychological well-being. Whil e boundaries are not always clear-cut, social and emotional wellbeing generally refers to individuals’ ability to manage emotions, build positive relationships, and maintain mental health, whereas cultural well-being relates to a sense of identity, b elonging, and connection to one’s cultural values, traditions, and communities. Figure 1 . The OECD Child Well-Being Measurement Framework

Source: OECD (2021[7]), Measuring what Matters for Child Well-Being and Policies, https://doi.org/10.1787/e82fded1-en. 13

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This paper makes the case for a gender-sensitive approach to creating supportive environments that foster adolescents’ s ocial and emotional well-being. Drawing from the OECD Child Well-being Data Portal , section 2 of this paper provides an overview adolescents’ social and emotional well -being across several outcomes, highlighting key trends and risk patterns in social and emotional wel l-being and manifestation of problematic outcomes. Section 3 explores the role of femininity and masculinity norms and stereotypes

section 2 of this paper provides an overview adolescents’ social and emotional well -being across several outcomes, highlighting key trends and risk patterns in social and emotional wel l-being and manifestation of problematic outcomes. Section 3 explores the role of femininity and masculinity norms and stereotypes in shaping different social and emotional well-being outcomes in adolescent boys and girls. Finally, section 4 discusses the need to create safe and supportive environments for adol escents across their home, school, neighbourhood, and online, and how these supports can respond t o boys’ and girls’ needs in a gender-sensitive way. The complements existing work on how healthcare systems can adapt to better support young people’s mental health, in co-ordination with family and school-based interventions (OECD, 2025[4]).14 

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The recent decline in adolescents’ social and emotional well -being has been characterised by stark gaps between boys and girls. For example, girls consistently report lower levels of life satisfaction, and the postCOVID decline in this area was steeper for them than for their male peers (Marquez et al., 2024[12]) Broader measures of adolescent mental well-being, such as the WHO5 Well-Being Index,1 point to similarly large gaps: According to 2021-2022 data, 44% of girls aged 11 to 15 report poor mental well-being, compared with 23.5% of boys (OECD Child Well-being Data Portal). This section provides an overview of the differences between boys and girls observed across three dimensions of social and emotional well-being: mental well-being, mental health, and resilience. Additionally, while social and emotional well-being is a broad term ranging from pos itive well-being and happiness to distress and mental ill-health, this section focusses on negativ e outcomes in social and emotional well-being to discuss the key challenges faced by boys and girls in adolescence. These challenges are critical as low social and emotional well-being in this period of life negatively affects longhappiness to distress and mental ill-health, this section focusses on negativ e outcomes in social and emotional well-being to discuss the key challenges faced by boys and girls in adolescence. These challenges are critical as low social and emotional well-being in this period of life negatively affects longterm health and well-being, for instance through mental health issues and risk-taking behaviours, including suicidality, delinquent activity, and interpersonal conflict. 2.1 Life satisfaction is declining among adolescents, especially for girls Despite significant variation across OECD countries, highly consistent patterns in adolescents’ subjective assessment of their emotional states (or mental well-being) emerge, indicating a decline in recent years. In the OECD, the percentage of 11-, 13and 15-year-olds who report low satisfaction with their lives overall (scoring 4 or below on a 0 to 10 scale) has increased by 40% from 20132014 to 2021-2022 on average (see Figure A.1 in the additional data that can be found clicking on the Support materials tab of the paper at this link: https://doi.org/10.1787/00ebd3dd-en). According to data from the Health Behaviour in Schoolaged Children (HBSC) World Health Organization Collaborative Cross-National Survey, the share of children who report having felt low, irritable or nervous more than once a week in the past si x months has seen an increase of over 50% since 2013-2014, and represented 26% of 11-, 13and 15-year-olds in 2021-2022. This decline was particularly marked for girls (World Health Organization, 2023 [13]). Girls fare worse than boys across several indicators of mental well-being. Figure 2 illustrates that girls are around twice as likely to experience low life satisfaction than boys in all countries in 2021-2022 (a factor between 1.65 and 2.5). Girls are also more likely to have felt low, irritable or nerv ous more than once a week in the past six months (36%) compared to boys (17%). PISA data confirm substantial gaps between

between 1.65 and 2.5). Girls are also more likely to have felt low, irritable or nerv ous more than once a we