OCDE - Growing up in the social media age

OECD Digital Economy Papers Growing up in the social media age No. 385OECD Digital Economy Papers

Growing up in the social media age

PUBE2  GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE

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This paper was approved and declassified by the Digital Policy Committee (DPC) on 27 March 2026.

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consent if it is for the sole purpose of determining a user’s age. 14 Media literacy and education are essential to equip young people with critica l skills and knowledge needed to safely navigate social media and exercise their right to empowerment. Mo re information on online media literacy and education can be found in OECD (forthcoming [94]). 15 15-year-old students were asked, “ During a typical weekend day [/weekday], how much time do you spend doing the following leisure activities?”, where the seven responses were: “Play video-games (using my smartphone, a gaming console or an online platform or Apps) ”, “Browse social networks (e.g. <Instagram®>, <Facebook®>)”; “Browse the Internet (excluding social networks) for fun (e.g. reading news, listening to podcasts and music or watching videos)”, “Look for practical information online (e.g. find a place, book a train ticket, buy a product)”, “Communicate and share digital content on social networks or any communication platform (e.g. <Facebook®>, <Instagram®>, <Twitter®>, emails, chat)”, “Read, listen to or view informational materials to learn how to do something (e.g. tutorial, podcast)”, and “Create or edit my own digital content (pictures, videos, music, computer programs)”. The weekly average was calculated assuming five weekdays and two weekend days. OECD average does not include Canada, Colombia, France, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway or Portugal. Although the items were measured through separate sub-questions, the activities could be performed simul taneously, and their aggregates should be interpreted with caution.OECD Digital Economy Papers Growing up in the social media age No. 385 Young people today interact in a range of digital environments – from browsing the Internet and playing video games to connecting with their peers on social media platforms. As social media has become central to how young people communicate and consume information, parents, educators and policymakers increasingly worry that social media use may contribute to lower academic performance and negatively affect well-being. This paper reviews the literature on the impacts of social media use on young people and then explores trends in how they use social media. It analyses

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DisclaimersGROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE  3

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Young people today interact in a range of digital environments – from browsing the Internet and playing video games to connecting with their peers on social media platforms. As social media has become central to how young people communicate and consume information, parents, educators and policymakers increasingly worry that social media use may contribute to lower academic performance and negatively affect well-being. This paper reviews the literature on the impacts of social media use on young peo ple and then explores trends in how they use social media. It analyses the associations between social media use and academic outcomes and skills, focusing on creative thinking. Finally, the paper discusses how policy can support young people in making the most of social media’s many opportunities while protecting them against related risks in ways that

and then explores trends in how they use social media. It analyses the associations between social media use and academic outcomes and skills, focusing on creative thinking. Finally, the paper discusses how policy can support young people in making the most of social media’s many opportunities while protecting them against related risks in ways that safeguard freedom of expression, privacy, innovation and fair competition.

Abstract4  GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE

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The ongoing digital transformation of the economy and society holds many promises to spur innovation, generate efficiencies and improve services, and in doing so boost growth. Digital technologies empower people by increasing access to information and enabling new forms of social engageme nt. Yet such benefits come with other challenges as digital transformation changes the nature and structure of organisations, markets and communities, and raises concerns about equity and inc lusion. Realising the opportunities and addressing the challenges is not automatic and may require policy action to make digital transformation boost growth and improve well-being. The OECD-Korea Digital Society Initiative (DSI), under the auspices of the OECD Digital Policy Committee (DPC) and supported by Korea, aims to help advance the DPC’s work on the societal aspects of digital transformation, including its implications for human rights, by integrating relevant ex pertise from across the DPC and its data infrastructures. The DSI provides insights on the impacts of digi tal transformation and digital technology development on society, and a venue for countries to discuss, exchange and explore policy case studies on related issues. The DSI focuses on three priority areas: digital inclusion and divides; safety; and trust. These themes were chosen as key areas to advance individu al and societal well-being in today’s highly digital society. This paper represents an output of the DSI. It contributes to a better understan ding of key trends in the digital transformation of societies across OECD Member and partner economies and it identifies innovative policy practices to maximise the opportunities of digital technologies for people and society and to minimise

communicate and consume information, parents, educators and policymakers increasingly worry that social media use may contribute to lower academic performance and negatively affect well-being. This paper reviews the literature on the impacts of social media use on young people and then explores trends in how they use social media. It analyses the associations between social media use and academic outcomes and skills, focusing on creative thinking. Finally, the paper discusses how policy can support young people in making the most of social media’s many opportunities while protecting them against related risks in ways that safeguard freedom of expression, privacy, innovation and fair competition.

in today’s highly digital society. This paper represents an output of the DSI. It contributes to a better understan ding of key trends in the digital transformation of societies across OECD Member and partner economies and it identifies innovative policy practices to maximise the opportunities of digital technologies for people and society and to minimise the related risks. This paper was written by Hanna Pawelec and Molly Lesher with contributions from A ngela Attrey, under the direction of Jerry Sheehan and Audrey Plonk. Research by Lorena Giuberti Coutinho in the initial phase of the project is gratefully acknowledged. The paper benefited from feedback from Craig Matasic k, Lisa Robinson, Olivier Thevenon and Jeremy West. Mark Foss, Andreia Furtado and Ali ce Weber provided editorial and communication support.

ForewordGROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE  5

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Table of contents Disclaimers 2

Abstract 3 Foreword 4 Executive summary 7 1 Introduction 9 2 What is social media and its impacts? 10 The research on social media use and well-being outcomes is complex and nuanced 10 Social media use is ubiquitous among young people, although girls are more intensive users 11 3 The linkages between social media use and academic performance 18 Students who use social media moderately have higher test scores, while excessive use is associated with falling academic performance 18 Moderate social media use is associated with more creative thinking 20 4 Exploring policy approaches to manage social media use by young people 22 Restrictions on digital devices in schools has gained popularity, but implementation is a challenge 22 National and subnational governments are enacting dedicated social media laws over and above laws governing online safety or privacy 24 5 Conclusion 28 Annex A. Time spent by girls and boys on digital leisure activities 29 References 30

Endnotes 386  GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE

above laws governing online safety or privacy 24 5 Conclusion 28 Annex A. Time spent by girls and boys on digital leisure activities 29 References 30

Endnotes 386  GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE

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FIGURES Figure 1. Almost all young people use social media, but they spend more time browsing than communicating and sharing digital content 14 Figure 2. The average 15-year-old in the OECD spends 35 hours a week using social media 15 Figure 3. Digital leisure activities differ by sex 16 Figure 4. The more young people see their friends right after school, the more time they spend on social media 17 Figure 5. For young people who use social media, mathematics performance tends to decline as time spent increases 19 Figure 6. Moderate social media use is associated with better performance in creative thinking 21 Figure 7. Mobile phone bans in schools are uncorrelated with social media use by young people 24

Figure A A.1. Browsing social media is the most popular digital leisure activity among girls 29

BOXES Box 1. The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 13 Box 2. France’s ban on mobile phones in middle schools 23 Box 3. Subnational legislation with social media provisions in the United States 25 Box 4. Australia's Social Media Minimum Age Framework for children under the age of 16 27GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE  7

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Digital technologies open new possibilities for education and play, enabling young people to find information faster and offering new opportunities to foster creativity and connection. Young people interact in a range of digital environments – from browsing the Internet and playing video games to connecting with their peers on social media platforms. Social media plays a central role in how young people communicate online. For those born in the early to mid-2000s, communicating via social media platforms is an integral

in a range of digital environments – from browsing the Internet and playing video games to connecting with their peers on social media platforms. Social media plays a central role in how young people communicate online. For those born in the early to mid-2000s, communicating via social media platforms is an integral part of their daily lives. While social media has become central to how young people communicate and c onsume information, it also has potential downsides. Parents, educators and policymakers increasingly worr y about the effect of social media on academic performance, learning environments, risks to mental heal th and overall wellbeing. The appeal of social media for young people and its potential for distraction, unhealthy comparisons and harmful information sharing have led several countries to restrict mobil e phones in schools. Other countries have enacted laws to regulate how social media companies can offer their s ervices to young people. In addition, some countries have established laws that set a minimum age for social media accounts. This paper reviews the literature on the impacts of social media use on young peopl e, focusing primarily on 15-year-olds, and explores trends in their social media use. Drawing on newly derived insights from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) data for 2022, it analyses the associations between social media use and academic outcomes and skills, particularly c reative thinking – a key complementary skill to thrive in highly digital environments. Finally, the paper discusses how policy can support young people in making the most of social media’s many opportunit ies while protecting them against related risks. Main findings Social media use is ubiquitous among young people • On average across the OECD, 15-year-olds spend almost 35 hours per week on social media, exceeding time spent on homework and school lessons. • Almost all young people use social media, but they spend more time browsing than communicating and sharing digital content. Around 95% of 15-year-olds report browsing social media daily and 88% report communicating or sharing digital content on these platforms. • Social media use varies across the OECD, ranging from under 26 hours per week in Japan to over 45 hours in Chile. Digital leisure activities differ by sex and socio-economic background

88% report communicating or sharing digital content on these platforms. • Social media use varies across the OECD, ranging from under 26 hours per week in Japan to over 45 hours in Chile. Digital leisure activities differ by sex and socio-economic background • Browsing social media is the most common digital leisure activity among girls, whereas boys spend more time playing video games. Overall, girls spend an average of 37.2 hours per week on social media compared to 31.8 hours for boys. • Girls are especially at risk from the negative effects of social media use, including poor body image and community-based online isolation and exclusion. Executive summary8  GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE

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• Girls and boys in the lowest socio-economic background quartile report spending on average eight and five hours more, respectively, per week on social media compared to their peers from the highest socio-economic background quartile.

Research on social media use and well-being outcomes is complex and nuanced • Social media complements rather than substitutes in-person interaction for man y young people. Students who spend more time with friends after school also tend to spend more time on social media. Those who see friends daily after school spend close to 40 hours per week on social media, compared to around 30 hours for those who rarely meet friends after school. • At the same time, social media can reinforce feelings of loneliness and lead to even greater isolation at school. Those 15-year-olds who feel lonely at school use more social media than those who feel well integrated. Students who use social media moderately have higher test scores, while excessive use is associated with falling academic performance • Mathematics performance is highest among students who use social media moderately, with both non-users and heavy users performing worse. Performance declines steadily as time spent increases beyond three hours per day. • Creative thinking scores also peak at moderate levels of browsing social media (one to three hours per day). However, any more than one hour spent using social media to communicate or s hare

their peers on social media platforms. Social media plays a central role in how young people communicate online. Those born in the early to mid-2000s have grown up connecting on platforms like Snapchat and Instagram. Communicating via social media platforms is thus an integral part of their daily lives. While social media has become central to how young people communicate and consume information, it also has potential downsides. Parents, educators and policymakers increasingly worry about the effect of social media on academic performance, learning environments , risks to mental health and overall wellbeing. The appeal of social media for young people and its potential for distraction, unhealthy comparisons and harmful information sharing have led several countries to restrict mobile phones in schools (French Ministry of National Education, 2025 [1]). Other countries have enacted laws to regulate how social media companies can offer their services to young people (OECD, 2025 [2]). In addition, some countries have established laws that set a minimum age for social media accounts (Australian Government, 2024 [3]; Australian eSafety Commissioner, 2026[4]). This paper reviews the literature on the impacts of social media use on young people, focusing primarily on 15-year-olds, and explores trends in their social media use. Drawing on newly derived insights from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) data for 2022, it analyses the associations between social media use and academic outcomes and skills, particularly c reative thinking – a key complementary skill to thrive in highly digital environments . Finally, the paper discusses how policy can support young people in making the most of social media’s many opportunities while protecting them against related risks.

1 Introduction10  GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE

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Social media can be understood as the “forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages and other content (such as videos)” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2025 [5]). However,

non-users and heavy users performing worse. Performance declines steadily as time spent increases beyond three hours per day. • Creative thinking scores also peak at moderate levels of browsing social media (one to three hours per day). However, any more than one hour spent using social media to communicate or s hare digital content on either the weekend or the weekday results in a decline in meas ured creative thinking scores. • Declines in performance associated with social media use are more pronounced among advantaged students than disadvantaged students. Weekly social media use of 35 hours is associated with an estimated decline of around 37 points in mathematics performance for advantaged students and 19 points for disadvantaged students. Restrictions on digital devices in schools and delaying access to social media has gained popularity, but implementation is a challenge • More jurisdictions are attempting to restrict digital devices in schools. D igital devices, particularly mobile phones, are the primary way in which young people access social media platforms. Restricting device usage in school, or delaying access to social media for children, has widespread support among adults but less so among young people. • Enforcement poses practical challenges, however, with many students continuing t o use their devices during school hours despite restrictions. On average across the OECD, 29% of 15-yearold students in schools that ban mobile phone use reported using their phone at school s everal times a day. An additional 21% reported using a mobile phone every day or almost every day.GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE  9

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Digital technologies open new possibilities for education and play, enabling young people to find information faster and offering new opportunities to foster creativity and connection. Young people interact in a range of digital environments – from browsing the Internet and playing video games to connecting with their peers on social media platforms. Social media plays a central role in how young people communicate online. Those born in the early to mid-2000s have grown up connecting on platforms like Snapchat and Instagram. Communicating via social media platforms is thus an integral part of their daily lives.

communication help reduce social isolation and cope with anxiety, including for elderly and young people (Cauberghe et al., 2021[14]; James et al., 2023[15]; Ibsen et al., 2025[16]). At the same time, social media use brings risks, particularly for young people who may be more susceptible to harms from negative peer feedback loops, unrealistic body images and harmful content online. Girls are especially at risk from the negative effects of social media use (OECD, 2024 [17]; Molly Rose Foundation, 2025[18]; Anses, 2026 [19]). Some researchers also argue that intensive social media engagement may be used to withdraw from offline social interactions, potentially increasing n egative feelings like loneliness (Noland, Necka and Cacioppo, 2018[20]; Roberts, Young and David, 2024[21]; OECD, 2025[8]). Social media clearly presents a multitude of opportunities and risks for you ng people (OECD, 2024 [17]; OECD, 2025 [22]; OECD, 2025 [8]). This section presents a brief review of the literature on the impacts of social media and well-being outcomes for young people. The research on social media use and well-being outcomes is complex and nuanced Researchers typically examine large, nationally representative datasets, incl uding self-reported data on both social media use and outcomes such as mental health or assessments of ac ademic achievement. Most analyses of such data find that excessive social media use is correlated with negativ e outcomes. 2 What is social media and its

impacts?GROWING UP IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA AGE  11

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However, researchers disagree on the size of the correlations (Twenge et al., 2020[23]; Orben and Przybylski, 2020 [24]; Vuorre, Orben and Przybylsi, 2021 [25]). Correlations do not prove causality. For example, lower-performing students or those already depressed might be more likely to use social media

Social media can be understood as the “forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages and other content (such as videos)” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2025 [5]). However, academics have defined social media in various ways that have evolved over time (Aichner et al., 2021[6]). Today, social media is typically characterised by several key features. First, it is understood t o enable the creation and exchange of user-generated content , typically linked with the user via a profile. Second , it is understood to be networked, meaning that it enables both oneto-one and oneto-many communication with other users. Third, it is often understood to enable interactivity, whereby users can interact with content and other users, including through liking or messaging (Kapoor et al., 2018 [7]; Aichner et al., 2021[6]). Social media use is driven by motivations that are both positive (e.g. strength ening social connections) and negative (e.g. escaping unpleasant offline experiences) (OECD, 2025 [8]). For example, social media can reinforce existing relationships, as well as provide access to new people and communities, including those with shared identities and interests (Odgers and Jensen, 2020 [9]; Berger et al., 2022[10]). Across the OECD, 40% of 11-15 year-olds have friends they met online and communicate with at least once a week (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children Study, 2023 [11]; OECD, 2025 [8]). It also facilitates access to information, with many people sourcing their news from social media platf orms (OECD, 2024 [12]; Pew Research Center, 2025 [13]). In addition, some researchers have found social media platforms and online communication help reduce social isolation and cope with anxiety, including for elderly and young people (Cauberghe et al., 2021[14]; James et al., 2023[15]; Ibsen et al., 2025[16]).

Przybylski, 2020 [24]; Vuorre, Orben and Przybylsi, 2021 [25]). Correlations do not prove causality. For example, lower-performing students or those already depressed might be more likely to use social media rather than social media use being the cause of lower test scores or unhappines s. Some researchers suggest that social media use is less likely to affect the mental health of young people relative to other economic factors, such as income level or parental unemployment (Odgers, 2024 [26]). Furthermore, other circumstances, such as parental engagement, homelessness or hunger, may also play a role. OECD work indicates that both contextual and protective factors play a role in understanding the impacts (OECD, 2025[8]). Other disagreements about correlations further heighten the need for nuance. The relat ionship between social media and well-being outcomes may be subject to omitted variable bias, where a third variable is correlated with both variables of interest. Researchers also disagree on the extent to whi ch other factors may explain potential correlations. Some see such factors having a direct causa l relationship on young people’s outcomes, while others view them as a pathway to negatively affect such outcomes (e.g. closeness with parents, negative attitudes towards school, cyberbullying, disrupted sleep, limited time with friends offline, etc.) (DoE, 2019[27]; Orben and Przybylski, 2019[28]; Twenge et al., 2022[29]). Systematic reviews using rigorous statistical techniques and that account for covariates fi nd a mixture of no, small or mixed correlative associations (Ivie et al., 2020 [30]; Odgers and Jensen, 2020 [9]; Orben, 2020[31]; Hancock et al., 2022 [32]; Valkenburg, Meier and Beyens, 2022 [33]). Moreover, the associations should be further nuanced as moderating factors, such as age, sex and pre-existing vulnerabilities, may influence the strength and direction of the relationship between social media use and well-being outcomes (OECD, 2025[8]).

nuanced as moderating factors, such as age, sex and pre-existing vulnerabilities, may influence the strength and direction of the relationship between social media use and well-being outcomes (OECD, 2025[8]). At the same time, several longitudinal studies show that changes in digital technology or social media use are associated with changes in mental health and academic outcomes (Babic et al., 2017[34]; Boers, Afzali and Newton, 2019[35]; Shakya and Christakis, 2017[36]), while others do not (Heffer, Good and Willoughby, 2019[37]; Orben, Dienlin and Pszybylski, 2019 [38]; Mitev et al., 2021 [39]). Some experimental research, 1 including natural experiments and controlled trials, finds positive correlations between participant outcomes and social media use with varying experiment specifications (Hunt et al., 2018[40]; Allcott et al., 2020[41]; Fioravanti, Prostamo and Casale, 2020 [42]; Mosquera et al., 2020 [43]; Lambert et al., 2022 [44]). Others find negative correlations (Hall et al., 2021 [45]; Collins and Eggers, 2022 [46]; Mahalingham, Howell and Clarke, 2023[47]). Additional methodological issues complicate the analysis of digital technology use or social media use and young people. First, most cross-sectional studies rely on self-reported data of time spent online. However, a body of research shows that self-reported data on digital technology use may be highly inaccurate (Sewall et al., 2020[48]), with subjects routinely overestimating their use of digital technolog ies. Such data also provide aggregate relationships that may mask effects based on age-specific, cultural, family or other characteristics (so-called group-level effects). Overall, the academic resea rch on social media use and well-being outcomes is complex and nuanced. Social media use is ubiquitous among young people, although girls are more intensive users

also provide aggregate relationships that may mask effects based on age-specific, cultural, family or other characteristics (so-called group-level effects). Overall, the academic resea rch on social media use and well-being outcomes is complex and nuanced. Social media use is ubiquitous among young people, although girls are more intensive users Mobile phones