OCDE - The persistent failure to build foundational skills for all

The Persistent Failure to Build Foundational Skills for All Adult Skills in Focus #17This work is issued under the responsibility of the Secretary-General o f the OECD and does not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD Member countries. This document, as well as any data and any map included herein, are without pre judice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers an d boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibil ity of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, Ea st Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

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© OECD 2026

Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 In ternational licence. By using this work, you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). Attribution – you must cite the work. Translations – you must cite the original work, identify changes to the ori ginal and add the following text: In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation, only th e text of original work should be considered valid. Adaptations – you must cite the original work and add the following text: Thi s is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adapta tion should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries. Third-party material – the licence does not apply to third-party materi al in the work. If using such material, you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any cla ims of infringement. You must not use the OECD logo, visual identity or cover image without expres s permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work. Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in a ccordance with the Permanent Court of

responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any cla ims of infringement. You must not use the OECD logo, visual identity or cover image without expres s permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work. Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in a ccordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Arbitration Rules 2012. The seat of arbitration sha ll be Paris (France). The number of arbitrators shall be one.© OECD 2026 3 Adult Skills in Focus #17 Key messages Around one in three adults across OECD countries lack the foundational literacy or numeracy skills needed to participate fully in modern economies and societies. More troubling still, the problem is not receding. Despite decades of investment in education and adult learning, the share of adults with low f oundational skills has increased over the past decade in many countries, even as skill r equirements continue to rise. Foundational skills have become the infrastructure of opportunity. They underpin access to employment, training, public services, he alth information and civic participation. Adults with low foundational skills are more likely to be excluded from opportunities that others routinely access. Adults with low foundational skills experience substantial disadva ntages in employment, earnings, health, life satisfaction and civic engagement. These disadvantages tend to accumulate over time, creating self-r einforcing cycles of exclusion. Adult learning systems often reinforce rather than reduce inequaliti es. The adults who stand to gain the most from improving their skills are typically the least likely to participate in learning. Persistent low investment in foundational skills reflects th ree mutually reinforcing failures: barriers that suppress demand for learning, employer underinvestment in transferable skills, and social returns that exceed private returns. Similar rates of low skills can mask very different policy challenges. Effective responses must be tailored to the depth, composition and origi ns of skills deficits within each country. Preventing low proficiency remains more effective than remed iating it. Strong initial education systems and sustained opportunit ies to use and develop

returns. Similar rates of low skills can mask very different policy challenges. Effective responses must be tailored to the depth, composition and origi ns of skills deficits within each country. Preventing low proficiency remains more effective than remed iating it. Strong initial education systems and sustained opportunit ies to use and develop skills throughout adulthood remain essential to breaking t he persistence of low skills across generations. 1 2 3 4 5

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The Persistent Failure to Build Foundational Skills for All A challenge that has not gone away For much of the twentieth century, the defining challenge for advanced economies was expanding access to education. Today, the challenge is different - and in many ways more difficult. It is what happens to the millions of adults who are left behind as the skill requirements of work, technology and daily life continue to rise. The latest evidence from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills delivers a stark message: nearly one in three adults across OECD countries lack the foundational literacy or numeracy skills needed to adequately participate in modern economies and societies. In 11 of the 27 countries that participated in both Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 of the Survey of Adult Skills, the share of adults with low skills has increased significantly over the past decade. Only in two countries has the share of adults with low skills declined. These foundational skills are not specialised abilities but essential competencies for everyday life, enabling individuals to understand payslips, complete online applications, follow workplace procedures, compare prices, manage household finances, and access public services. In a world that increasingly assumes a basic level of literacy and numeracy, adults who lack these skills face more than disadvantage - they risk exclusion from opportunities that others routinely access. The scale of the challenge varies widely. Fewer than one in five adults have low foundational skills in Finland, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden, compared with more than one in two in Chile, Poland and Portugal (Figure 1).

from opportunities that others routinely access. The scale of the challenge varies widely. Fewer than one in five adults have low foundational skills in Finland, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden, compared with more than one in two in Chile, Poland and Portugal (Figure 1). Overall, this is not a marginal issue affecting a small group on the fringes of society. It is a structural challenge that sits at the heart of economic performance, social cohesion and democratic resilience. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Japan Finland Sweden Norway Netherlands Denmark Flemish Region (Belgium) Estonia England (UK) Canada Switzerland Germany Slovak Republic Czechia Ireland OECD average Austria Singapore New Zealand France Croatia Latvia Korea United States Hungary Spain Italy Israel Lithuania Poland Portugal Chile % Figure 1. One in three adults have low foundational skills Percentage of adults scoring at or below Level 1 in literacy or numeracy, 2023

Note: Low foundational skills are defined as scoring at or below Level 1 in literacy or numeracy Source: OECD (2026), Navigating Life with Low Literacy and Numeracy New Results from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills OECD

Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c198a20f-en.© OECD 2026 5 Adult Skills in Focus #17 Foundational skills shape outcomes Low proficiency rarely means an inability to read or calculate, but rather difficulty doing so reliably and efficiently under everyday demands. As work and daily life rely increasingly on information processing and digital interaction, these limitations carry growing costs. Adults with low foundational skills are much more likely to be out of the labour force, and those in work earn significantly less than higher skilled peers – even after accounting for demographic differences. The effects extend beyond employment to health, well-being and civic participation.

costs. Adults with low foundational skills are much more likely to be out of the labour force, and those in work earn significantly less than higher skilled peers – even after accounting for demographic differences. The effects extend beyond employment to health, well-being and civic participation. These disadvantages reinforce one another over time. Adults with weaker skills are less likely to access jobs that promote learning, less likely to participate in further education and training, and less likely to maintain their skills through use. As a result, skill deficits tend to persist. As economies become more knowledgeintensive, foundational skills increasingly function as the infrastructure of opportunity. When large numbers of adults lack them, the consequences extend far beyond individual hardship. Productivity suffers, labour shortages become harder to address, social inequalities deepen, and democratic participation weakens. Why the problem persists A central paradox of adult learning policy is that those who would benefit most from improving their skills are least likely to participate. Adults with low foundational skills face multiple barriers, including low confidence, limited awareness of skill needs, competing family and work responsibilities, financial constraints and negative prior experiences of education. As a result, adult learning systems often reinforce existing inequalities: those with stronger skills continue to develop them, while those with weaker skills fall further behind. This reflects a low-investment equilibrium driven by three reinforcing failures. First, individuals face immediate costs while benefits appear uncertain or distant. Second, employers underinvest in transferable skills that workers may use elsewhere. Third, the social returns to higher skills - through higher productivity, better health and stronger civic participation - exceed the private returns captured by individuals and firms. Understanding the nature of the challenge Knowing how many adults have low skills is only the starting point. Effective policy also requires understanding how far adults are from functional competence and where their difficulties lie. Adults with low foundational skills are not a homogeneous group. Many demonstrate stronger capabilities in other domains: around

Knowing how many adults have low skills is only the starting point. Effective policy also requires understanding how far adults are from functional competence and where their difficulties lie. Adults with low foundational skills are not a homogeneous group. Many demonstrate stronger capabilities in other domains: around one in five adults with low literacy reach at least Level 2 in numeracy, and a similar share reach Level 2 in adaptive problem solving. Skill deficits therefore take different forms. The depth and composition of low skills also vary across countries. Similar shares of low-skilled adults can conceal very different challenges, depending on whether deficits are close to proficiency thresholds or reflect deeper gaps, and whether weaknesses lie in literacy, numeracy or both. PIAAC further shows how adults engage with reading tasks. A typology based on speed and accuracy identifies four groups - fluent, effortful, surface and struggling readerswhose prevalence differs across countries. Taken together, prevalence, depth of deficits and reader profiles point to distinct country patterns requiring different policy responses (Table 1).6 © OECD 2026 The Persistent Failure to Build Foundational Skills for All Table 1. Four country profiles capture fundamentally different foundational skills challenges Country classification by share of adults with low foundational skills, median literacy and numeracy scores, interdecile range, and dominant reader profile among adults with low skills, 2023

Note: Ireland: the gap between its literacy median (212, the highest in the sample) and numeracy median (205) is the largest negative gap in the near-threshold group; it is retained here because numeracy performance remains above average in absolute terms; Japan: the literacy interdecile range is above the OECD average Sweden: wide dispersion in both domains and high struggling reader share (45%) distinguish it from most countries in this profile Latvia: fluent and effortful are the dominant types of readers Source: OECD (2026), Navigating Life with Low Literacy and Numeracy New Results from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills OECD

Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris,

effortful are the dominant types of readers Source: OECD (2026), Navigating Life with Low Literacy and Numeracy New Results from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c198a20f-en. What policy can do now Addressing low foundational skills requires shifting from passive provision to active engagement. Because adults with low skills rarely seek out learning independently, effective systems must proactively identify needs and engage learners through workplaces, communities and other trusted settings.

The implication is clear: a one-size-fits-all approach will not succeed. Adults with low foundational skills are not a homogeneous population, and policy responses must reflect that reality. Effective strategies need to be differentiated according to the depth of skill deficits, the domains in which they occur, and the role that migration and language background may play. They must also be proactive, bringing learning opportunities into workplaces, communities and everyday settings rather than relying on individuals to seek them out.

Stronger incentives are needed to increase employer investment, including co-financing arrangements, targeted subsidies and sectorwide mechanisms that reduce risk. Learning must also be relevant and accessible, with programmes embedded in workplaces and community contexts to support participation. Above all, they must be sustained. For adults facing significant foundational challenges, lasting progress rarely comes from short courses or isolated interventions. Provision must match the depth of need, combining Profile Prevalence Literacy median Numeracy median Dispersion Typical reader profile Countries Near threshold, concentrated Wide range (13%–48%) High High Narrow Fluent readers prevalent in higher-prevalence countries; effortful/struggling more common at lower prevalence Canada, Czechia, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lithuania, Poland, Slovak Republic,

valent in higher-prevalence countries; effortful/struggling more common at lower prevalence Canada, Czechia, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lithuania, Poland, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden Deep deficit, dispersed Wide range (15%–61%) Low Low Wide Heterogeneous Chile, Denmark, Finland, Flemish Region (Belgium), France, Germany, Israel, Netherlands, Portugal Literacy gap Low to moderate (17%–37%) Low High Mixed Many struggling readers Austria, Latvia, Norway, Singapore, Switzerland Numeracy gap Moderate (24%–37%) High Low Wide Few struggling readers England (UK), New Zealand, United States© OECD 2026 7 Adult Skills in Focus #17 structured support with flexible delivery that fits around work and family responsibilities. Building foundational skills is not a quick fix; it is a long-term investment in people, productivity and social inclusion. Preventing low proficiency in the first place - through strong initial education systems and continued opportunities to use and develop skills throughout adulthood - remains the most effective strategy. Ultimately, strengthening foundational skills is a long-term investment in productivity, inclusion and the resilience of modern economies and societies.

Prevention Medium-term: Maintaining skills through use at work and home Long-term: Strengthening early childhood education and care and initial education Outreach Building awareness and motivation Activation through trusted intermediaries

Provision Contextualised learning Intensity, flexibility, stackable pathways Educator quality and professional development Adult learning system Figure 3. Key policy levers

education Outreach Building awareness and motivation Activation through trusted intermediaries Provision Contextualised learning Intensity, flexibility, stackable pathways Educator quality and professional development Adult learning system Figure 3. Key policy levers Source: OECD (2026), Navigating Life with Low Literacy and Numeracy New Results from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c198a20f-en.8 © OECD 2026 The Persistent Failure to Build Foundational Skills for All See also: OECD (2026), Navigating life with low literacy and numeracy. New evidence from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills , OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c198a20f-en. OECD (2025), Trends in Adult Learning. New Data from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ec0624a6-en. OECD (2024), Do Adults Have the Skills They Need to Thrive in a Changing World?: Survey of Adult Skills 2023, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ b263dc5d-en

Visit: https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/piaac.html Contact: Claudia Tamassia, Senior project manager of PIAAC (

Claudia.Tamassia@oecd.org) Anja Meierkord, Analyst ( Anja.Meierkord@oecd.org ) Marco Paccagnella, Analyst ( Marco.Paccagnella@oecd.org ) François Keslair, Statistician ( Francois.Keslair@oecd.org ) General contact: edu.piaac@oecd.org