OIM - Cash-based Interventions and Mobility

CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS

AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHESThe opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

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CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Samuel Hall would like to thank, first and foremost, IOM and its Cash-based Intervention Unit – namely Julie Gjerlufsen, Fouad Diab, Mustafa Hadeed and Thanujah Muhunthan – for their trust and support in this research. We extend our gratitude to the technical advisory board, composed of representatives from different IOM departments and regional offices, as well as representatives from external organizations and global experts. The advisory board provided invaluable insights throughout all phases of the research, through their thorough review, collective exchanges and constructive feedback. We are equally grateful to all the research participants who took the time to share their perspectives during key informant interviews, focus group discussions, workshops and through the online survey, representing the voices and insights from a large number of experts from different regions of the world. Research for this study was led by Nassim Majidi, Juliette Samman, Irina Mosel and Hervé Nicolle of Samuel Hall, with support from Wendy Indira, Koumba Dia, Cynthia Ngenei, Serene Nekoui and Nicole Stoumen.v CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES CONTENTS Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

CONTENTS Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii List of text boxes, figures, tables and case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 1 | INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1. Context and background .................................................... 2 1.2. Research scope ............................................................ 5 2 | WHAT THE LITERATURE SAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2. Research scope ............................................................ 5 2 | WHAT THE LITERATURE SAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.1. Contextual definition of cash-based inter ventions ................................ 9 2.2. Cash-based interventions and the migration cycle ............................... 11 3 | KEY FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.1. Migrant profiles ........................................................... 17 3.2. Supporting migrants ....................................................... 19 3.3. Delivering assistance throughout the migration cycle ............................ 20 3.4. The effectiveness of cash-based interventions to support migrants ................. 24 4 | CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.1. The challenges of providing cash-based interventions to migrants ................. 38 4.2. Facilitators of cash-based interventions provision to migrants ..................... 45 5 | LESSONS LEARNED FROM KEY CONTEXTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5.1. Emergency contexts ....................................................... 52 5.2. Peace, recovery and development contexts .................................... 56 5.3. Return and reintegration contexts ............................................ 59 5.4. Institutional practice ....................................................... 62

5.1. Emergency contexts ....................................................... 52 5.2. Peace, recovery and development contexts .................................... 56 5.3. Return and reintegration contexts ............................................ 59 5.4. Institutional practice ....................................................... 62 6 | WAY FORWARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 6.1. How can stakeholders better support migrants through cash-based interventions? .... 76 6.2. Recommendations ........................................................ 78 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Appendix: Participants’ list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87vi

CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES

LIST OF TEXT BOXES, FIGURES, TABLES AND CASE STUDIES T ext boxes T ext box 1. The Grand Bargain ................................................... 3 T ext box 2. IOM Cash-based Interventions Strategy 2022–2026 ....................... 4 T ext box 3. Motility as capital and the role of cash-based interventions in human mobility . 13 T ext box 4. Risks of cash-based interventions for migrants and for practitioners ......... 21 T ext box 5. Multipurpose cash assistance versus sectoral cash: What type of cash-based interventions for what results? ........................................ 26 T ext box 6. Multipurpose cash assistance plus for Venezuelans in Colombia ............. 28 T ext box 7. Cash for work in migration ........................................... 33

T ext box 5. Multipurpose cash assistance versus sectoral cash: What type of cash-based interventions for what results? ........................................ 26 T ext box 6. Multipurpose cash assistance plus for Venezuelans in Colombia ............. 28 T ext box 7. Cash for work in migration ........................................... 33 T ext box 8. Group cash transfer and women’s response rooms in the Sudan ............ 55 T ext box 9. T wo pilots aimed at supporting caminantes through route-based approaches in Colombia ....................................................... 58 Figures Figure 1. Three specific objectives of the research ................................. 5 Figure 2. Three dimensions of cash-based interventions for migrants ................. 5 Figure 3. Summary figure: Introducing cash-based inter ventions ...................... 9 Figure 4. Responses to the question: When you support migrants through cash-based interventions, are cash or vouchers provided directly to (n=70) ............. 19 Figure 5. Summary figure of the effectiveness of cash-based interventions to support migrants .......................................................... 34 Figure 6. Summary figure of the challenges to providing cash-based interventions for migrants .......................................................... 38 Figure 7. Summary figure of the facilitators of cash-based interventions to support migrants .......................................................... 45 Figure 8. Illustration of key services received in humanitarian service points along migrant routes ..................................................... 49 Figure 9. Factors that contribute to the effectiveness of cash-based interventions to support migrants ................................................... 52 Figure 10. Good institutional practices to strengthen the effectiveness of cash-based interventions ...................................................... 62 Figure 11. Summary figure: The approaches to link cash-based interventions with governmental social protection systems ................................ 68 Figure 12. Complementary programming to support migrants through cash-based interventions ...................................................... 73 Figure 13. Good practices at institutional level to increase the effectiveness of cash-based interventions to support migrants ......................... 77vii

CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES

Tables

interventions ...................................................... 73 Figure 13. Good practices at institutional level to increase the effectiveness of cash-based interventions to support migrants ......................... 77vii CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES Tables Table 1. Overview of the final fieldwork sample .................................. 7 Table 2. Factors that impact the effectiveness of cash-based interventions and modality preferences: A summary .................................. 12 Table 3. Summary of the literature: Key findings, knowledge gaps and implications ..... 15 Table 4. Sociodemographic profiles of migrants with specific cha llenges ............. 18 Table 5. Summary table on the use of cash-based interventions to support migrants .. 23 Case studies Case study 1. Leveraging cash assistance in gender-based violence case ma nagement: Ukrainian refugee response of the Republic of Moldova ................... 30 Case study 2. Route-based programming: Collaborative initiative with the support of CashCap/NORCAP in Latin America and the Caribbean ................ 35 Case study 3. International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies’ humanitarian service points .......................................... 49 Case study 4. Overcoming barriers through partnerships with the private sector: The case of Ecobank ................................................ 71 Case study 5. A gradual integrated approach to multiround multipurpose cash assistance in the Syrian Arab R epublic .............................. 74ix CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS CBI cash-based interventions CFW cash for work CORE Community Organized Relief Effort CVA cash and voucher assistance CWG cash working group FGD focus group discussion fintech financial technology FSP financial service provider GBV gender-based violence GCT group cash transfer HPN Humanitarian Practice Network HSP humanitarian service point IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee IDP internally displaced person IECAH Instituto de Estudios sobre Conflictos y Acción Humanitaria

FSP financial service provider GBV gender-based violence GCT group cash transfer HPN Humanitarian Practice Network HSP humanitarian service point IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee IDP internally displaced person IECAH Instituto de Estudios sobre Conflictos y Acción Humanitaria (Institute of Studies on Conflicts and Humanitarian Action) IFRC International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies IOM International Organization for Migration KII key informant interviewx ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS LAC Latin America and the Caribbean MEAL monitoring, evaluation, accountability and learning MEB minimum expenditure basket MHPSS mental health and psychosocial support MPCA multipurpose cash assistance NGO non-governmental organization NRC Norwegian Refugee Council ODI Overseas Development Institute PDM post-distribution monitoring QR quic k response UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNHCR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund USD United States dollars WASH water, sanitation and hygiene WFP World Food Programmexi

CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES

GLOSSARY1

Cash-based interventions (CBI) All programmes where cash transfers and/or vouchers are provided to individuals, households or group/community recipients to directly purchase and access goods or services (IOM, n.d.a). The term is interchangeable with CVA. Cash plus The combination of cash transfers with complementary interventions. While it shares features with complementary programming, it differs in that it implies that cash is pre-supposed as the core component, rather than determining all modalities via response analysis. It also implies that providing cash assistance without complementary interventions is commonplace. Cash transfers The provision of assistance in the form of money, either physical currency or electronic cash, to recipients (individuals, households or communities). Cash transfers are unrestricted in terms of use and distinct from restricted modalities such as vouchers

response analysis. It also implies that providing cash assistance without complementary interventions is commonplace. Cash transfers The provision of assistance in the form of money, either physical currency or electronic cash, to recipients (individuals, households or communities). Cash transfers are unrestricted in terms of use and distinct from restricted modalities such as vouchers and in-kind assistance. Complementary programming The combined use of multiple modalities and/or activities to address needs and achieve a specific outcome or outcomes for a given target group of aid recipients. Complementary interventions can be implemented by one or multiple organizations working collaboratively. It can include multiple modalities or activities within one project or programme, and/or linking the target population to assistance provided by other sectors or organizations. Conditionality Prerequisite activities or obligations that a recipient must fulfil to receive assistance. Some interventions might require recipients to achieve agreed outputs, which can include purchasing specific goods or services, as a condition of receiving subsequent tranches. Cash for work, assets or training are all forms of conditional transfer. Effectiveness In this report and for the purpose of this research, effectiveness refers to the fact that CBI or a specific activity enables migrants to respond to their immediate and long-term needs, gain autonomy and increase their safety. Effectiveness is not only used with regards to the programme outputs and outcomes, but also includes the relevance of the activity and of the output and outcomes, the flexibility and adaptation to changing needs of migrants and the impact, including secondary impact for migrants and host communities. Integrated programming Programming that holistically addresses the needs and risks of affected populations through intentional multisectoral, multimodality, people-centred and interdisciplinary approaches. The objective is to increase effectiveness, with better outcomes for recipients. It can involve multiple organizations working collaboratively to develop common analysis and objectives, for example at a response level, or it can be applied within a single organization as a holistic approach incorporating multiple objectives. 1 Unless specified differently, the definitions are extracted from the CALP Network, n.d.a.xii

GLOSSARY

recipients. It can involve multiple organizations working collaboratively to develop common analysis and objectives, for example at a response level, or it can be applied within a single organization as a holistic approach incorporating multiple objectives. 1 Unless specified differently, the definitions are extracted from the CALP Network, n.d.a.xii GLOSSARY Migrant A person who moves away from his or her place of usual residence, whether within a country or across an international border, temporarily or permanently, and for a variety of reasons. The term includes several well-defined legal categories of people, such as migrant workers, persons whose particular types of movements are legally defined, such as smuggled migrants, as well as those whose status or means of movement are not specifically defined under international law such as international students (IOM, n.d.b; IOM, 2019:132). Minimum expenditure basket (MEB) An operational tool used to identify and calculate, in a particular context and for a specific moment in time, the average cost of a socioeconomically vulnerable household’s multisectoral basic needs that can be monetized and accessed in adequate quality through the local market. Goods and services included in the MEB should enable households to meet basic needs and minimum living standards without resorting to negative coping strategies or compromising their health, dignity and essential livelihood assets. It is not the same as the transfer value but is an important tool to inform their calculation. Mobile money An electronic currency (e-money) that may be transferred electronically and as payment. It is a paperless version of a national currency that can be used to provide humanitarian e-cash payments. Modality The form of assistance, such as cash transfer, vouchers, in-kind, service delivery or a combination (modalities). This can include both direct transfers to household level and assistance provided at a more general or community level, such as health services and WASH infrastructure. Multipurpose cash assistance (MPCA) Comprises transfers (either periodic or one-off) corresponding to the amount of money

combination (modalities). This can include both direct transfers to household level and assistance provided at a more general or community level, such as health services and WASH infrastructure. Multipurpose cash assistance (MPCA) Comprises transfers (either periodic or one-off) corresponding to the amount of money required to cover, fully or partially, a household’s basic and/or recovery needs that can be monetized and purchased. Cash transfers are multipurpose if explicitly designed to address multiple needs, with the transfer value calculated accordingly. The extent to which a cash transfer enables basic needs to be met depends on the sufficiency of the transfer value and should be considered when terms are applied to specific interventions. MPCA transfer values are often indexed to expenditure gaps based on an MEB, or another monetized calculation of the amount required to cover basic needs. MPCA is always unrestricted as the assistance can be spent as the recipient chooses. Polycrisis A combination of risks of different nature that accelerates their development and amplifies them: “Interacting crises can produce impacts that are both different from and worse than the harms the crises would have produced separately” (Lawrence et al., 2024:1). Vouchers A paper voucher or e-voucher, can be exchanged for a set value, quantity and/or type of goods or services, denominated either as a currency value (such as USD 15), a predetermined range of commodities (such as fruits and vegetables) or specific services (such as a medical treatment) or a combination of value and commodities. Vouchers are restricted by default, although the degree of restriction will vary based on the programme design and type of voucher. They are redeemable with preselected vendors or service providers or in fairs created by the implementing agency.xiii CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Over the past decade, cash-based interventions (CBI) has become a mainstream approach to delivering aid, valued for its cost-effectiveness, flexibility and the choice it provides for recipients.

CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Over the past decade, cash-based interventions (CBI) has become a mainstream approach to delivering aid, valued for its cost-effectiveness, flexibility and the choice it provides for recipients. The use of CBI to support refugees or internally displaced persons (IDPs) is not new but still unevenly applied in migration contexts and regions. Practitioners continue to face challenges in securing funding and adapting CBI modalities to the needs of a range of migrants, such as transit migrants, migrants in situations of vulnerability and returnees. Although existing knowledge on programmatic aspects, outcomes and innovations have grown with the increasing use of CBI in migration contexts, evidence on the effectiveness of CBI remains limited. In 2024, the question is not whether cash and vouchers can be used to support migrants, but how best to adapt and operationalize CBI to support migrants most effectively, covering a range of contexts, needs and profiles, and who can lead this change. This report, commissioned by IOM and written by Samuel Hall, consolidates the state of knowledge on CBI for migrants to identify barriers, enablers and good practices that can be addressed, scaled up and replicated. Through interviews with cash and migration experts, as well as humanitarian and private sector actors, the report zooms in on specific contexts and profiles to encourage a wider audience and community of practice to support migrants. The report explores how CBI can facilitate and complement humanitarian and protection responses to strengthen the response to migrants’ needs. As a pioneer of CBI in migration contexts, IOM has increased the use and institutionalization of CBI in recent years. From 2017 to 2019 alone, the number of CBI aid recipients has grown by 120 per cent. In 2023, IOM assisted nearly 4 million migrants in 112 countries and territories through CBI (IOM, 2024a). T o institutionalize this growth, IOM first established a team at headquarters in 2019 dedicated to CBI and the Grand Bargain commitments on cash, to ensure that country

CBI (IOM, 2024a). T o institutionalize this growth, IOM first established a team at headquarters in 2019 dedicated to CBI and the Grand Bargain commitments on cash, to ensure that country missions are equipped to increase the use and efficiency of CBI. This institutionalization led to the formulation of the CBI Strategy 2022–2026, which outlines the Organization’s strategic objectives. Finding more effective ways to support migrants through CBI requires an understanding of three factors: mobility, context and programme design. The design of CBI activities, including the choice of delivery mechanisms, transfer values and conditionality, must be adapted to mobility and contextual elements to ensure that short-, mediumand long-term outcomes are consistent with the ultimate purpose of the intervention. The report highlights good practices for designing adapted programmes and overcoming challenges specific to migration. The experience of migration encompasses a wide range of realities, including different statuses, aspirations and socioeconomic assets. For institutions – be they governments, United Nations agencies or non-governmental organizations (NGOs) – migration is first and foremost a matter ofxiv ExECUTIVE SUMMARY labels and categorizations (Zetter, 2007; Bakewell, 2008). This is due to the need for administrative, conceptual or legal categorization. Categories such as transit migrant, returnee, IDP, refugee, economic migrant and asylum-seeker are porous and fluid. As Bakewell (2008) notes, crossing a border can alter the label, status and migratory cycle of a person, including shifts from regularity to irregularity, depending on the national context. T o address this reality, this study adopts a mobility lens: How can CBI be adapted to the lived experiences of migrant men and women, in different contexts and with unique external variables? The aim of this study is not to define the best forms of assistance for specific categories, but to integrate the migration experience. The focus will be on subjective experiences rather than fixed labels. Common challenges in implementing CBI for migrants relate to identification and access. Certain contexts contribute to increased vulnerability: irregular situations under local law (residence or

to integrate the migration experience. The focus will be on subjective experiences rather than fixed labels. Common challenges in implementing CBI for migrants relate to identification and access. Certain contexts contribute to increased vulnerability: irregular situations under local law (residence or work permits), transit, lack of documents, as well as other socioeconomic limitations. These obstacles often lead to increased insecurity and a life in the shadows. With no means of obtaining documents or accessing health services, financially and economically excluded and limited by restrictions on movement, many migrants may distrust humanitarian aid and development workers. These difficulties are exacerbated by the pressure exerted by governments and the persistence of negative narratives about financial aid for migrants. Moreover, problems of coordination, lack of suitable technical infrastructure and security are material obstacles that are often prohibitive. Contextual factors also affect migrants’ access to the support and services needed for CBI to function properly. They can hinder or facilitate certain programmatic modalities and implementation mechanisms. Finally, the type of context (emergency, development, peace and recovery or return and reintegration) may play a role in the type and timing of mobility. By contrast, coordination and alignment through cash working groups (CWGs), coordination with local authorities and civil society, better partnership approaches as well as the use of technology, for example in route-based approaches, are key elements that facilitate CBI.

LESSONS LEARNED: INSIGHTS SHARED BY STAKEHOLDERS This report sets out the main lessons learned to provide effective, efficient, appropriate and flexible responses: Polycritical risk analyses: Practitioners can use polycritical risk analyses to identify the territorial and temporal scales of an intervention, its modalities, the appropriate partnerships and possible negative effects in terms of communication.

Multimodal implementation: Practitioners need to recognize the different profiles and experiences of migrants, their exposure to a range of risks, traumas and needs, all of which can contribute to putting them in situations of vulnerability. Complementing CBI with in-kind assistance, referrals and other forms of support shows more effective results due to the flexibility of modalities that respond to diverse needs.xv

can contribute to putting them in situations of vulnerability. Complementing CBI with in-kind assistance, referrals and other forms of support shows more effective results due to the flexibility of modalities that respond to diverse needs.xv CASH-BASED INTERVENTIONS AND MOBILITY: A REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES Time: There is an urgent need to better understand the temporality of migration and move from short-term solutions to relevant responses that can reduce dependency and provide durable solutions.

Space: Rethinking assistance with a coherent territorial basis (cross-border and regional) is crucial, moving away from simple national logics and boundaries (legal and adminis trative).

T erritorial partnerships: Partnerships can be based on areas and timescales that go beyond the strict framework of programmes (funding cycle) or national programmes. Partnerships need to adapt to long (migratory cycle) and short (emergency) timescales, and to both regional and local areas that go beyond the simple national perimeter.

Institutional strengthening: Investing in institutional capacity, institutional partnerships