OIM - Migration Policy Practice (Volume XIII, Number 3, December 2024)

Short articles to better connect migration research, policy and practice worldwide ISSN 2223-5248 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024

MIGRATION

POLICY PRACTICE Combating misinformation about migration Marie McAuliffe, Richa Arora and Jenna Nassiri The danger of biases in the visual portrayal of migrants and the need for inclusive narratives Juan Sebastian Olier and Camilla Spadavecchia The Homes for Ukraine Scheme: How the provision of exceptional rights and legal migration routes shaped Ukrainian reception within the United Kingdom Kate Garbers and Audrey Lumley-Sapanski Student migration from Punjab: A call for youth-centred migration policies in India Sugandha Nagpal Enhancing reintegration assistance for returnees in Iraq through the National Referral Mechanism: Challenges, lessons learned and ways forward Irene Tuzi and Agnes Ebenberger Foreign-trained medical professionals in Belize: Data gaps, human resources for health initiatives and impacts on sustainability Ryan Durante and Margaret Walton-Roberts Transnational practices of care along the Nepal–Malaysia remittance corridor Nadiah Ahmad and Yvonne Khor Empowering Afghanistan: Afghan diaspora (potential) contributions in renewable energy Nasrat Sayed 2 4 13 21 28 39 47 55Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024

MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE

2 Combating misinformation about migration Marie McAuliffe, Richa Arora and Jenna Nassiri1 1 Migration narratives at the global, national and local levels continue to be weaponized for short-term political and commercial gains. Anti-migrant disinformation to advance xenophobic political agendas is a long-standing issue, and one that proliferates in the digital age.2 The regulation of digital technologies has not kept pace with new advances, creating a highly disruptive context that means even basic information can be undermined by rapidly spread rumours and false claims. 3 A major downside to such technologies is that accurate and balanced accounts of migration have been further

age.2 The regulation of digital technologies has not kept pace with new advances, creating a highly disruptive context that means even basic information can be undermined by rapidly spread rumours and false claims. 3 A major downside to such technologies is that accurate and balanced accounts of migration have been further threatened by the misuse of generative artificial intelligence (AI).4 The escalation of disinformation and misinformation has wide-reaching impacts on migrant communities, as the rise in hate speech can incite physical violence and threaten migrant security.5 The linkages between misinformation, mobility and human security has become central to migration research and analysis.6 1 Marie McAuliffe, IOM; Richa Arora, GiZ; and Jenna Nassiri, IOM and York University. 2 Eileen Culloty, Jane Suiter, Itayi Viriri and Sara Creta, “Disinformation about migration: an age-old issue with new tech dimensions” in: World Migration Report 2022 (M. McAuliffe and A. Triandafyllidou, eds.) (Geneva, IOM, 2021), pp. 217–231. 3 Ibid. 4 Open AI, AI and covert influence operations: Latest trends (2024). 5 Marie McAuliffe, Pablo Rojas Coppari, M.J. Abbasi-Shavazi and Ottilia

A. Maunganidze, “Migration and human security: Unpacking myths and examining new realities and responses” in: World Migration Report 2024

(M. McAuliffe and L. Oucho, eds.) (Geneva, IOM, 2024), pp. 139–162. 6 Ibid. In the chaos of skewed narratives about migration, the positive contributions of migrants and the critical role migration plays in supporting the Sustainable Development Goals have fallen by the wayside. 7 Bolstering positive claims and showcasing nuanced accounts about the complexity of migration through evidence-based research and robust data analysis can enhance mainstream narratives about migration, as this issue sets out to do. Diverse migration scenarios

the Sustainable Development Goals have fallen by the wayside. 7 Bolstering positive claims and showcasing nuanced accounts about the complexity of migration through evidence-based research and robust data analysis can enhance mainstream narratives about migration, as this issue sets out to do. Diverse migration scenarios can also help to reveal how migration policies can be tailored to support impacted communities. This issue of Migration Policy Practice examines how migrant narratives – including the perceptions and portrayals of migrants – impact policy responses, particularly concerning migrants’ entry, reception and integration (see Olier and Spadavecchia, as well as Garbers and Lumley-Sapanski). Moreover, this issue details the multidimensional processes of migration, including the need for tailored policies that support individual’s pre-departure (see Nagpal on student migration from Punjab), as well as those who return (see Tuzi and Ebenberger on returnees in Iraq). Additionally, articles in this issue challenge negative narratives about migration by highlighting migrants’ contributions, specifically regarding the high-skilled migration 7 Marie McAuliffe, “ Migration is a global strategic asset. We must not undermine it”, World Economic Forum (29 May 2024); Marie McAuliffe, Adrian Kitimbo and Binod Khadria, “Reflections on migrants’ contributions in an era of increasing disruption and disinformation” in: World Migration Report 2020 (M. McAuliffe and B. Khadria, eds.) (Geneva, IOM, 2019), pp. 161–183.3 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE of medical professionals (Durante and WaltonRoberts in the context of migration in Belize) and the role of remittances as a key driver of development. Articles in this issue emphasize how remittances contribute to a country’s overall GDP and welfare as a critical source of support among transnational families (Ahmad and Khor), and also through innovative remittance-sending

and the role of remittances as a key driver of development. Articles in this issue emphasize how remittances contribute to a country’s overall GDP and welfare as a critical source of support among transnational families (Ahmad and Khor), and also through innovative remittance-sending practices, such as remittances to support renewable energy efforts in countries of origin (Nasrat). We hope you enjoy this issue. Marie, Richa and JennaVol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024

MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE

4 The danger of biases in the visual portrayal of migrants and the need for inclusive narratives Juan Sebastian Olier and Camilla Spadavecchia1 Abstract The portrayal of migrants in media often perpetuates biases and reinforces stereotypes, with far-reaching consequences for public opinion, policymaking and migrants’ lives. Furthermore, these portrayals may differ per country depending on political context, acceptance of migrants or specific migratory events. Against this backdrop, this article analyses the characteristics of visual representation in ten countries across Europe, the Americas and Oceania, with varying migration acceptance scores and percentages of migrants within the total population. A comprehensive analysis was conducted using artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, a migration studies lens and an intersectional approach, focusing on differences in gender, age, facial features and emotions of people depicted in images associated with three terms: migrants, refugees and expatriates (also referred to as “expats”). The results reveal an under-representation of migrant women in visual media, perpetuation of gender biases and stereotypes around emotions, and substantial crowd depictions of certain groups of migrants, which has been shown to lead to dehumanization. The analysis also explores the “expat versus migrant” dichotomy, uncovering inherent colonial implications. This interdisciplinary study also highlights differences in visual portrayal across the ten studied countries. Finally, recommendations

which has been shown to lead to dehumanization. The analysis also explores the “expat versus migrant” dichotomy, uncovering inherent colonial implications. This interdisciplinary study also highlights differences in visual portrayal across the ten studied countries. Finally, recommendations 1 Juan Sebastian Olier and Camilla Spadavecchia are both assistant professors at the Tilburg University in the Kingdom of the Netherlands. are provided to national media agencies and other stakeholders based on the study’s findings. Introduction Images have a profound impact on people’s perceptions, influencing understanding and shaping the creation of knowledge, and can serve as instrument to maintain existing dynamics of power. Unlike text-based communication, visuals engage different cognitive processes and are often perceived as closer to reality. They have a profound impact on how realities are perceived beyond direct experience and can drive powerful responses.2 As a result, visuals have the potential to convey implicit messages and perpetuate stereotypes. Visual communication, particularly in media, not only influences opinions but also shapes attitudes, emotions and behaviours, which in turn can affect policymaking or the acceptance of specific political agendas.3 The depiction of migrants in the media The portrayal of migrants in mainstream media and their impact has garnered considerable attention in academic research over the last 2 Thomas E. Powell, Hajo G. Boomgaarden, Knut de Swert and Claes H. de Vreese, “A clearer picture: The contribution of visuals and text to framing effects”, Journal of Communication, 65(6):997–1017 (2015). 3 Stefaan Walgrave and Peter Van Aelst, “ Political agenda setting and the mass media” in: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics (2016).5 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE decades.4, 5, 6 Several works focused on television shows, news coverage and online press have revealed the potential of such portrayals to shape views, emotional responses, social judgements and subsequent behaviours towards migration. It

MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE decades.4, 5, 6 Several works focused on television shows, news coverage and online press have revealed the potential of such portrayals to shape views, emotional responses, social judgements and subsequent behaviours towards migration. It has been shown that media images can influence political agendas, particularly concerning emotional approaches linked to security issues.7 Notably, mainstream media often conflates terms, such as migrant, refugee and asylum-seeker, which perpetuates misconceptions and reinforces negative associations. It is argued that while the word migrant can indeed serve as an umbrella term to describe people who move away from their usual place of residence – whether within a country or across an international border, temporarily or permanently, and for various reasons (as defined by IOM) – it is crucial to distinguish this concept from the perception of a monolithic group of individuals. Mainstream media representation has frequently linked the term migrant to a specific group of people migrating internationally in search of or who have obtained asylum. 4 Banu Akdenizli, E.J. Dionne, Martin Kaplan, T. Rosenstiel and Roberto Suro, Democracy in the Age of New Media: A Report on the Media and the Immigration Debate (The Brookings Institute, Washington, D.C., 2008). 5 Andrea Lawlor and Erin T olley, “Deciding who’s legitimate: News media framing of immigrants and refugees”, International Journal of Communication, 11:967–991 (2017). 6 Michal Wenzel and Marta Żerkowska-Balas, “Framing effect of media portrayal of migrants to the European Union: a survey experiment in Poland”, East European Politics and Societies and Cultures, 33(1):44–65 (2019). 7 Jakob-Moritz Eberl, Christine E. Meltzer, T obias Heidenreich, Beatrice Herrero, Norta Theorin, Fabienne Lind, Rosa Berganza, Hajo Boomgaarden,

(2019). 7 Jakob-Moritz Eberl, Christine E. Meltzer, T obias Heidenreich, Beatrice Herrero, Norta Theorin, Fabienne Lind, Rosa Berganza, Hajo Boomgaarden, Christian Schemer and Jesper Strömbäck, “The European media discourse on immigration and its effects: a literature review”, Annals of the International Communication Association, 42(3):207–223 (2018). This approach creates a single narrative of migration, which can be problematic because it fails to represent the diversity of migration experiences. Visuals and other forms of narratives are often the primary way for many people to understand phenomena like migration, when they are not directly in touch with it. When migrants are depicted as a collective, it reinforces the notion that they are not seen as individuals, which can lead to dehumanization and perpetuate negative dynamics of otherness. Headlines that portray migration as a wave and use problematic terms further contribute to this issue. This can evoke strong emotions and serve specific political agendas that tend to label migrants as a threat to security. Media plays a significant role in creating narratives about migration. For instance, in the European coverage of the so-called refugee crisis in the Syrian Arab Republic in 2015, research has shown how the representation of asylumseekers is shifting between that of a victim and a threat and often involves symbolic strategies of dehumanization, such as massification (showing a multitude of indistinguishable individuals), vilification (visualities of threat), infantilization (distressed, clueless and powerless individuals) and marginalization (“othering”).8 Moreover, it has been shown that in countries, such as France, Greece, Italy and the United Kingdom, there tends to be a specific focus on the legal status and cultural differences of migrants, although the political orientation of the outlet 8 Lilie Chouliaraki and Tijana Stolic, “Rethinking media responsibility in the

France, Greece, Italy and the United Kingdom, there tends to be a specific focus on the legal status and cultural differences of migrants, although the political orientation of the outlet 8 Lilie Chouliaraki and Tijana Stolic, “Rethinking media responsibility in the refugee ‘crisis’: a visual typology of European news”, Media, Culture and Society, 39(8):1162–1177 (2017).6 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE strongly influences portrayals.9 Left-wing media tend to present migrants as victims, while rightwing media often frames them as a public threat. Similarly, the depiction of migrants varies based on their country of origin, with Western migrants often enjoying a more favourable portrayal than those from non-Western regions. Data analysis methods To better understand how migration is depicted in different countries, a technique was developed that combines AI with intersectional analysis. This involved analysing the gender, age, facial features and emotions of individuals shown in images related to the terms migrants, refugees and expats. The goal is to study how these different groups of migrants are portrayed online across various locations. The study focused on ten countries with varying levels of migrant acceptance and proportions of migrants in their populations. Furthermore, official statistics on immigration were considered to validate this information. The countries included are Australia, Canada, Colombia, Hungary, Italy, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The study focused on variations in portrayals based on the demographics of people depicted and emotional information in images.10 The study proposed an approach based on the use of deep learning models to study the 9 Adriana Valente, Valentina Tudisca, Andrea Pelliccia, Loredana Cerbara and Maria Girolama Caruso, “Comparing liberal and conservative newspapers: Diverging narratives in representing migrants?”, Journal of Immigrant and

the use of deep learning models to study the 9 Adriana Valente, Valentina Tudisca, Andrea Pelliccia, Loredana Cerbara and Maria Girolama Caruso, “Comparing liberal and conservative newspapers: Diverging narratives in representing migrants?”, Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies, 21(3):411–427 (2021). 10 Juan Sebastian Olier and Camilla Spadavecchia, “Stereotypes, disproportions, and power asymmetries in the visual portrayal of migrants in ten countries: an interdisciplinary AI-based approach”, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9:410 (2022). portrayal of migration on a large scale, focusing on imagery sought in a search engine and linked with migration. Unconstrained searches of online media images using the Google Cloud Platform were performed. The pictures were associated with keywords specifying three groups, namely migrants, refugees and expatriates (also referred to as expats). For each group, an independent search was performed in 10 different countries, and the top 200 results in each country were used. Employing deep learning models, the study analyses the images regarding emotions and demographic variables. Face and people detection algorithms were applied to the images to focus on the people portrayed. Faces were analysed to estimate gender, age, facial features and emotions displayed. Additionally, the study determined when images portrayed large groups (crowds) instead of individuals. To further study the difference between gender perceptions, the study also searched for gender-specific markers, such as expat man or refugee woman. Therefore, there were nine search terms (three per group, e.g. expat, expat man and expat woman). The study collected a total of 17,898 images and analysed 21,076 faces. Key findings Women are underrepresented. The analysis uncovered a gender imbalance in the portrayal of migrants, as most faces were perceived as male across all groups. This disparity contradicts official statistics, which show a more

analysed 21,076 faces. Key findings Women are underrepresented. The analysis uncovered a gender imbalance in the portrayal of migrants, as most faces were perceived as male across all groups. This disparity contradicts official statistics, which show a more balanced gender distribution among actual migrant populations. These stereotypes have far-reaching consequences for migrant women, as they can influence public perceptions, policymaking and the integration of migrant women into host communities.7 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE Furthermore, the study reveals that imbalanced gender representation in media depictions tends to align with the gender equality indices of the selected countries.11 This correlation indicates a connection between societal gender biases and the portrayal of migrants in the media. 11 World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report: Insight Report June 2023 (Geneva, World Economic Forum, 2022). Table 1. Gender distribution in analysed images and population per location Data Gender Australia Canada Colombia Hungary Italy Kingdom of the Netherlands Spain Sweden United Kingdom United States Estimated from images Male 58 59 67 68 67 60 52 48 64 60 Female 42 41 33 32 33 40 48 52 36 40 Migrant population statistics Male 49 49 – 57 51 52 49 54 – 49 Female 51 51 – 43 49 48 51 46 – 51 Gender Gap Index 2023 - 0.778 0.770 0.751 0.689 0.705 0.777 0.791 0.815 0.792 0.748

Source: All figures and tables, unless otherwise indicated, are original elaboration by the authors.

Notes: All numbers are in percentage. The Global Gender Gap Index measures scores that reflect a 0 to 1 scale, and scores can be interpreted as the distance covered

Source: All figures and tables, unless otherwise indicated, are original elaboration by the authors.

Notes: All numbers are in percentage. The Global Gender Gap Index measures scores that reflect a 0 to 1 scale, and scores can be interpreted as the distance covered towards parity (that is, the percentage of the gender gap that has been closed).

Expats are overrepresented as white. The analysis also investigated the facial characteristics of individuals depicted in images related to the three groups: migrants, refugees and expats. The findings reveal a notable disparity in analysed images; the AI models estimate expats to be predominantly portrayed as “white”, whereas migrants and refugees are estimated to be more frequently depicted as having features associated with racialized groups. These discrepancies perpetuate biases and reinforce the concept of “white privilege” among expats, disregarding the diversity and contributions of immigrants from non-Western countries. To further examine this, the results of the image analysis were compared with statistics on highly skilled migrants in the United States (the only country using race as a category in their statistics), which uncovered a significant overrepresentation of whites and an under-representation of Asians. That might pose a conflict between the fact that the expats – often considered the good, privileged and unproblematic migrants12 – are frequently assumed to be white Westerners, whereas, in reality, many expats, often defined as highly skilled migrants, originate from non-Western countries. 12 Sarah Kunz, “ Privileged mobilities: locating the expatriate in migration scholarship”, Geography Compass, 10(3):89–101 (2016).8 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE The findings suggest a colonial perspective in media portrayals where migrants are associated with non-Western regions and non-white individuals, highly skilled migrants from nonWestern backgrounds are underrepresented, and only individuals with a Western background are conferred the label of expat. This misrepresentation creates a distorted view of

The findings suggest a colonial perspective in media portrayals where migrants are associated with non-Western regions and non-white individuals, highly skilled migrants from nonWestern backgrounds are underrepresented, and only individuals with a Western background are conferred the label of expat. This misrepresentation creates a distorted view of migration, perpetuating stereotypes and colonial perspectives, where the professional migrant is understood by several governments as the person adding value to the receiving economy, and, therefore, a welcomed migrant for which specific attractive policies13 are designed, is a white male; and other migrants entering for other purposes rather than a professional job are over-represented as non-Western individuals. Further, these misrepresentations can also affect a country’s attractiveness to highly educated migrants and influence attitudes and policies that, in the long run, can be detrimental to the retention of such a population. 13 Ernest Berkhout, Arjan Heyma, Maikel Volkerink and Siemen van der Werff, Attracting and Retaining Highly Skilled Migrants in the Netherlands (Amsterdam, SEO Economic Research, 2015). Figure 1. Distribution of facial features from images and statistics in the United States Age, gender and family portrayals: Productive men versus reproductive (young) women. The study reveals age-related biases in media representations of migrants. Male migrants tend to be depicted as older individuals, compared to the actual demographics of migrant populations in the countries included in the analysis, while female migrants tend to be portrayed as younger. Additionally, there is an under-representation of children in the images analysed, further perpetuating stereotypes and neglecting the realities of migrant families. Children were found most often in the images associated with female groups; among the images of expats, the number of children’s faces was the lowest. This further perpetuates the stereotype of men in productive roles and women in reproductive and caring roles. At the same time, this reinforces the idea9 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024

groups; among the images of expats, the number of children’s faces was the lowest. This further perpetuates the stereotype of men in productive roles and women in reproductive and caring roles. At the same time, this reinforces the idea9 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE that expats are “brains in motion” and not wellrounded individuals who, in several cases, have families moving with them. On the other hand, when migrant women are often depicted as merely following partners, their potential contributions are overlooked. This perspective fails to acknowledge that they can also be working professionals. Such portrayals simplify the complexity of the migration process in the media, reducing diverse groups to stereotypical and monolithic categories. Men are angrier, and expats are happier. The portrayal of emotions in media images reveals distinct patterns related to the three groups analysed. In general, migrants and refugees are depicted with predominantly negative emotions, while expats tend to be portrayed as positive or neutral. The results of the study also pointed to known gender-related stereotypes of emotions, which can be observed in Figure 2, where clearly there is a gender difference regarding detected emotions. Studies on emotion stereotypes have shown that women are often believed to experience and express a broader range of emotions, except anger and pride, typically associated with men.14 In the study, the same stereotypes are found: images of groups perceived as male conveyed more neutral and negative expressions, while images of groups perceived as female showed a broader range of emotions. Social norms can influence emotional expression related to 14 E. Ashby Plant, Janet Shibley Hyde, Dacher Keltner and Patricia G. Devine, “The gender stereotyping of emotions”, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(1):81–92 (2000). perceived dominance, affiliation and status, for example by associating wealthier individuals with positive emotions and persons under the poverty threshold with negative ones. Considering these

“The gender stereotyping of emotions”, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(1):81–92 (2000). perceived dominance, affiliation and status, for example by associating wealthier individuals with positive emotions and persons under the poverty threshold with negative ones. Considering these stereotypes, the study’s results show that migrants and refugees are commonly associated with poverty, while expats are linked to wealth. Portrayal of migrants as a monolith can reinforce the notion that migration is connected to socioeconomic problems, potentially fostering biases, discrimination and limited opportunities for migrants. Within the expat group images, gender differences in emotional expression indicated that portrayals may reflect prevailing views of masculinity, particularly traits associated with dominance and power, which are more commonly attributed to men. This is discerned from the emotions displayed, with anger being detected more frequently among expat men than women. This further emphasizes the traditional roles of men and women affecting gender equality. Moreover, that kind of perpetuation can also impact the perception of migrants as individuals with agency beyond the predefined labels such as expat or highly skilled migrant.10 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE Figure 2. Proportion of male and female faces represented per emotional expression Source: Original elaboration by the authors. Individuals versus crowds Most images of people analysed for the study depict two faces, except for images of migrant and refugee women , who are generally depicted in larger groups. Furthermore, migrants and refugees are more likely to be portrayed as crowds. This aligns with the arguments in previous research that migrants are depicted in a way that dehumanizes them by obscuring their facial features.15 These portrayals can have a more emotional impact, as they symbolize a potential threat either to the receiving country or the migrants themselves (that is, a group can be perceived as overwhelming compared to an

in a way that dehumanizes them by obscuring their facial features.15 These portrayals can have a more emotional impact, as they symbolize a potential threat either to the receiving country or the migrants themselves (that is, a group can be perceived as overwhelming compared to an 15 Roland Bleiker, David Campbell, Emma Hutchison and Xzarina Nicholson, “The visual dehumanisation of refugees”, Australian Journal of Political Science, 48(4):398–416 (2013). individual). As such, portrayals of migrants and refugees can be more beneficial for specific political agendas to showcase discourses on threats or humanitarian issues. Finally, the proportion of images containing faces is lowest for expats; this could be explained by the fact that the images related to expats are focused on work-related issues or ways of attracting them to a country, rather than on people or possible impacts they might have on the society. Conclusions The analysis of media representation of different groups of migrants in ten countries, across Europe, America and Oceania, reveals the presence of biases and stereotypes that can influence public perceptions and attitudes towards them. By understanding these biases,11 Vol. XIII, Number 3, December 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE work can be done towards more accurate and inclusive portrayals of migration, fostering a more informed and empathetic society. It is essential to challenge these stereotypes and ensure that media narratives align with the realities and diversity of migrant experiences. Implications and recommendations This study reveals the perpetuation of interwoven stereotypes in the visual depiction of migrants, fortifying a specific migration visual narrative that can shape policies and attitudes. To address these issues, stakeholders – including photojournalists, media professionals and media agencies – must confront biases and diversify the visual portrayals of migrants. Additionally, academia and policymakers are relevant stakeholders for this topic. Academia plays a crucial role in educ