OIM - Protecting the human rights of migrants at sea

PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA A Course on the International Law of Maritime Jurisdiction, Interception, and Search and Rescue for the Middle East and North Africa | Facilitator’s Guide |The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. _____________________________ This activity is funded by the Government of Spain.

Publisher: IOM African Capacity Building Centre

Block C, 9/F P.O. Box 6697 Aga Khan Road Moshi, Kilimanjaro Region United Republic of Tanzania T el.: +677 22536

Email: acbc@iom.int Website: www.iom.int Required citation: McAdam, M. (2024). Protecting the Human Rights of Migrants: A Course on the International Law of Maritime Jurisdiction, Interception, and Search and Rescue for the Middle East and North Africa .

International Organization for Migration, African Capacity Building Centre (ACBC), Kilimanjaro, United Republic of Tanzania.

Cover photo: A young girl among other migrants following their disembarkation on the Greek island of Lesbos.

© IOM 2015/Amanda NERO

_____________________________

ISBN 978-92-9268-983-4 (PDF)

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PUB2024/045/ELPROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA A Course on the International Law of Maritime Jurisdiction, Interception, and Search and Rescue for the Middle East and North Africa | Facilitator’s Guide |FOREWORD Like so many of us, I remember the day I saw the photograph of two-year old Aylan Kurdi lying on that sandy beach in Türkiye in September 2015. With my own young son asleep in the crib beside me, similarly posed, the image could not have been more poignant and aroused some strong emotions: a young life lost, a family bereft and a lot of questions starting with “Why”. My first encounter with the international law of the sea was in law school about 27 years ago, and my recollection is of insurance and the salvage of lost cargo. Large-scale maritime migration had not yet become the phenomenon it is today, nor the focus of summit-level diplomacy. That changed in 2015, when the numbers of people attempting the Mediterranean crossing became front page headlines, and stories like Aylan’s began to penetrate the public consciousness. Similar crises elsewhere became more visible – in the Andaman Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Caribbean – in far-flung seascapes that nonetheless shared a common narrative involving desperate and determined people, compromised vessels in treacherous waters,

Aylan’s began to penetrate the public consciousness. Similar crises elsewhere became more visible – in the Andaman Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Caribbean – in far-flung seascapes that nonetheless shared a common narrative involving desperate and determined people, compromised vessels in treacherous waters, unscrupulous syndicates and villains, and disproportionately high rates of casualty and disappearance. Governments were struggling for answers then – and still do. T o the extent that answers are found in law, we have tried to offer them here. I have had the privilege of working with Marika McAdam twice before on this theme: on the 2018 IOM publication, Protection of Migrants at Sea, and on the exploratory process that resulted in Protecting Migrants at Sea: A Practical Guide to Fulfilling International Obligations, released in 2020 by the Regional Support Office of the Bali Process, under the leadership of Michael Odgers. With this latest endeavour, we hope to offer something a bit different: a methodology that can help guide officials, including those who may not have a background in law, through the basic legal frameworks that apply at sea, while also creating space for exploration, discussion and debate in areas where the law appears silent or in need of development. It is for the facilitators and trainers who will use this material, and even more so for officials responsible for migrants at sea, to decide if we have succeeded. I am particularly grateful to Marika McAdam for her commitment to this project, and for her expertise, the depth of her research, the quality of her writing and her attention to detail, which are all apparent throughout this Facilitator’s Guide. The Facilitator’s Guide, focused on the law, is but one part of a larger IOM curriculum that also includes guidance for national authorities on the operational response to ensuring the effective protection of migrants at sea. For their collaboration and support, I would like to express my sincere thanks to IOM’s Regional Director for the Middle East and North Africa, Othman Belbeisi, and the IOM team at the Regional Office in

guidance for national authorities on the operational response to ensuring the effective protection of migrants at sea. For their collaboration and support, I would like to express my sincere thanks to IOM’s Regional Director for the Middle East and North Africa, Othman Belbeisi, and the IOM team at the Regional Office in Cairo: Rawaa Ahmed, Jacopo Carbonari, Sacha Chan Kam, and Eva Pons; Franz Prutsch of the IOM Mission in Libya; and Mathieu Luciano of the IOM Mission in Lebanon. I am also grateful for the contributions of the teams at IOM Headquarters: Vassiliy Yuzhanin and Gianna Sanchez of the International Migration Law Unit and Allegra Sary of the Immigration and Border Governance Division. This work is dedicated to the memory of Aylan Kurdi and the thousands of others like him who have died or gone missing at sea, and to the belief that we can do better. Jonathan Martens Manager and Senior Trainer African Capacity Building Centre (ACBC) Moshi, Kilimanjaro United Republic of Tanzania 8 February 2024 iii PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA | FACILITATOR’S GUIDE |CONTENTS Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................................................................iii List of figures and tables........................................................................................................................................................................v Purpose of the course ..........................................................................................................................................................................vi Methodology .............................................................................................................................................................................................vi Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................................................................................vii Module A International law and maritime migration in the twenty-first century

1. Treaties and principles ............................................................................................................................................................3

Activity: Ratification of relevant instruments ..................................................................................................................4

Lecture notes: The law of the sea and maritime migration ........................................................................................8

Lecture notes: International human rights law .................................................................................................................9

Lecture notes: International refugee law ...........................................................................................................................15

Lecture notes: Convention on Transnational Organized Crime and its Supplementary Protocols ........17

2. Maritime zones and questions of jurisdiction ........................................................................................................23

Activity: Case study 1 – Jurisdictional challenges ....................................................................................................24

Lecture notes: Freedom of navigation and exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State .........................................26

Activity: Case study 2 – Flag State jurisdiction .......................................................................................................29

2. Maritime zones and questions of jurisdiction ........................................................................................................23

Activity: Case study 1 – Jurisdictional challenges ....................................................................................................24

Lecture notes: Freedom of navigation and exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State .........................................26

Activity: Case study 2 – Flag State jurisdiction .......................................................................................................29

Lecture notes: Flags of convenience and stateless vessels .........................................................................................34

Lecture notes: Maritime zones and jurisdiction .............................................................................................................36

Activity: Case study 3a – Jurisdictional challenges (territorial sea) .................................................................37

Lecture notes: T erritorial sea ................................................................................................................................................39

Activity: Case study 3b – Jurisdictional challenges (contiguous zone) ...............................................................43

Lecture notes: Contiguous zone ...........................................................................................................................................45

Activity: Case study 3c – Jurisdictional challenges (exclusive economic zone) ..............................................46

Lecture notes: Exclusive economic zone and the high seas ......................................................................................47

3. Extraterritorial jurisdiction ...............................................................................................................................................49

Activity: Case study 4 – Extraterritorial jurisdiction .............................................................................................50

Lecture notes: Extraterritorial jurisdiction .......................................................................................................................52

Module B Maritime interception

4. International law and maritime interception: Overview ................................................................................63

Activity: Case study 5 – Interception ...........................................................................................................................64

Lecture notes: Grounds for interception ..........................................................................................................................66

Lecture notes: Effective control ............................................................................................................................................72

5. Right of visit ................................................................................................................................................................................79

Activity: Case study 6 – Right of visit ...........................................................................................................................80

Lecture notes: Right of visit.....................................................................................................................................................83 iv PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA | FACILITATOR’S GUIDE |6. Right of hot pursuit ...............................................................................................................................................................89

Activity: Case study 7 – Right of hot pursuit ...........................................................................................................90

Lecture notes: Hot pursuit ......................................................................................................................................................91

7. Preventative measures and human rights implications of “effective control” ..................................97

Activity: Case study 8 – Preventative measures ......................................................................................................98

Activity: Human rights and preventative measures .................................................................................................100

Lecture notes: Rights-based preventative measures and effective control ......................................................101

Module C Maritime search and rescue

8. Duty to rescue ........................................................................................................................................................................111

Activity: Case study 8 – Preventative measures ......................................................................................................98

Activity: Human rights and preventative measures .................................................................................................100

Lecture notes: Rights-based preventative measures and effective control ......................................................101

Module C Maritime search and rescue

8. Duty to rescue ........................................................................................................................................................................111

Activity: Duty to rescue .....................................................................................................................................................112

Activity: Human rights and the duty to rescue .......................................................................................................115

Lecture notes: Duty to rescue ............................................................................................................................................116

Lecture notes: Distress ..........................................................................................................................................................128

9. Duty to coordinate and cooperate ...........................................................................................................................133

Activity: Case study 10 – Coordination and cooperation ...............................................................................134

Lecture notes: Coordination and cooperation ............................................................................................................135

10. Duty to disembark to a “place of safety” .............................................................................................................143

Activity: Case study 11 – Disembarkation to a place of safety .....................................................................144

Lecture notes: Place of safety..............................................................................................................................................149

Lecture notes: Human rights obligations in disembarkation ..................................................................................155

Annexes: Relevant provisions in international law ...............................................................................................................161

Bibliography ..........................................................................................................................................................................................171 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1. The intersection of international law and maritime migration ..................................................................5 Figure 2. Maritime crisis in the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea ..............................................................................25 Figure 3. Maritime zones under UNCLOS ..........................................................................................................................36 Table 1. Core international human rights instruments ..................................................................................................9 Table 2. Relevant provisions in international human rights instruments ..............................................................11 Table 3. Common violations of human rights of migrants at sea ............................................................................13 Table 4. Elements of smuggling of migrants at sea .........................................................................................................18 Table 5. Conditions for the right of visit set by the Global Maritime Crime Programme ............................84 v PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA | FACILITATOR’S GUIDE |PURPOSE OF THE COURSE This Facilitator’s Guide has been developed for those delivering training to national authorities in the southern and eastern Mediterranean. Its purpose is to strengthen the technical, analytical and operational capacities of migration officials to more effectively protect human rights in the specific context of maritime migration.

This Facilitator’s Guide has been developed for those delivering training to national authorities in the southern and eastern Mediterranean. Its purpose is to strengthen the technical, analytical and operational capacities of migration officials to more effectively protect human rights in the specific context of maritime migration. The modules contained in this Facilitator’s Guide are anchored on the principle of the sovereign authority of States to admit or refuse entry of non-nationals, following an individualized assessment to determine the conditions of their stay, and to detain and expel them in accordance with their customary and international human rights and other obligations, including those under human rights law and the principle of non-refoulement.1 These modules also recognize the unique challenges of upholding the human rights of migrants (and others who may be among them) in the maritime context. These challenges may be exacerbated by insufficient human and financial resources, particularly for deployment at sea, as well as limited legal and policy guidance on how to respond to situations that maritime and migration officials may encounter. This course examines international and regional human rights instruments, norms and standards, as well as relevant national laws, while also drawing on judicial reasoning from regional and international courts. In doing so, it aims to provide practical guidance and facilitate solution-oriented decision-making that can be applied to real-life situations frequently encountered by immigration and border officials on the content. METHODOLOGY The course is organized into modules and designed to take place over 3–5 days with groups of approximately 16 participants in various professional roles, with different backgrounds and levels of experience. It is oriented around its activities, allowing participants to recognize their own complex work environments, increase their awareness of international human rights norms and standards in relation to migration, and further develop analytical and decision-making skills anchored on a rights-based approach. The modules employ case studies and other activities to encourage solution-oriented collaborative reasoning. These practical activities are drawn primarily from the Mediterranean maritime migration context, with insights from elsewhere, as relevant, to support migration officials in understanding and applying international norms and standards to their everyday work. The goal of the course’s activities, which require participants’ active engagement, is to build their capacity to apply analytical approaches and rights-based principles learned

insights from elsewhere, as relevant, to support migration officials in understanding and applying international norms and standards to their everyday work. The goal of the course’s activities, which require participants’ active engagement, is to build their capacity to apply analytical approaches and rights-based principles learned during the course to their day-to-day work. Throughout the course, participants should be encouraged to share their experiences and reflections, so they can learn from each other and collaboratively identify solutions. 1 For a companion course that addresses these issues, see: Vohra and Martens (2024). vi PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA | FACILITATOR’S GUIDE |ACRONYMS CAT Convention against T orture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child ECHR European Court of Human Rights EEZ exclusive economic zone ICC International Criminal Court ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICERD International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICPPED International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance ICRMW International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families ICRPD Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities ICS International Chamber of Shipping IMO International Maritime Organization NGO non-governmental organization OAU Organization of African Unity OHCHR United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights RCC rescue coordination centre SAR Convention International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue

SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNHCR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNTOC United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime vii PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA | FACILITATOR’S GUIDE |Migrants arriving in Italy after their rescue by the Italian Coast Guard. Italy is a main destination country for migrants using the Central Mediterranean Route between North Africa and Europe. © IOM 2014/Francesco

MALAVOLTAMODULE A

INTERNATIONAL LAW AND MARITIME MIGRATION IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURYThis young boy is among the migrants and refugees in a migrant processing centre on the Greek island of Lesbos. The Government of Greece runs several migrant processing centres on the island under an agreement between the Government of Türkiye and the European Union. © IOM 2015/Amanda NERO1. TREATIES AND PRINCIPLES Learning objectives Upon completing this section, participants will be able to: • Identify key areas of international law that are relevant to the protection of migrants at sea. • Understand the basic purpose of key treaties and the obligations they impose on States vis-à-vis migrants at sea. Key points • A comprehensive response to maritime migration requires States to effectively implement laws and policies compatible with both the international law of the sea and international human rights law. • The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) determines maritime zones and State responsibility within each zone and establishes the State’s duties to render assistance to any person found at sea in danger of being lost and to proceed, with all possible speed, to the rescue of persons in distress. • The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) concerns the safety of ships, including duties to render assistance and disembark rescued persons to a place of safety. • The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR Convention) provides a framework for conducting search-and-

• The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) concerns the safety of ships, including duties to render assistance and disembark rescued persons to a place of safety. • The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR Convention) provides a framework for conducting search-andrescue operations at sea. • Customary international law and international human rights law applies at sea in all maritime zones. Protecting the human rights of people at sea requires that UNCLOS, customary international law and international human rights law be applied and interpreted together. • The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) and the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol that supplements it, provide a framework for States to cooperate against migrant smuggling, including in the maritime context, in ways that protect migrants’ human rights.

3 PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF MIGRANTS AT SEA | FACILITATOR’S GUIDE |ACTIVITY Ratification of relevant instruments Instructions: Invite participants to complete the below table for their respective countries (and/or countries relevant to them) – that is, whether they are party to the listed instruments relevant to maritime migration, including by indicating whether they have registered any reservations. The table is completed by ticking the corresponding cell if their country has ratified the instrument (and adding the date of ratification) or crossing it out if not. (Participants can be directed to search the relevant instrument online and/or refer to https://treaties.un.org.)

UNCLOS SOLAS SAR

Convention UNTOC Smuggling of Migrants Protocol Trafficking Protocol Country 1 Country 2 Country 3 Country 4 Country 5 Country 6 Country 7 Country 8

Note: UNCLOS – United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; SOLAS – International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; SAR Convention – International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue; UNTOC – United Nations Convention against Transnational

Organized Crime. 4

1. TREATIES AND PRINCIPLESLECTURE NOTES International legal framework relevant to migrants at sea

Convention – International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue; UNTOC – United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. 4

1. TREATIES AND PRINCIPLESLECTURE NOTES International legal framework relevant to migrants at sea Overview • The key areas of international law that are relevant to the protection of migrants at sea are:

(a) international law of the sea, (b) international human rights, (c) refugee law, and (d) transnational criminal law. These instruments do not stand individually on their own and must be applied and interpreted together to provide a comprehensive response – and ensure sufficient human rights protections for all who find themselves at sea. Which instrument comes into play, and which State is responsible for implementing its provisions, depends on the nature of the situation and the location where it occurred (or is occurring), and the profile of the individual rights holder(s) affected. Figure 1. The intersection of international law and maritime migration Transnational criminal law International human rights law International law of the sea Refugee law • Applying these legal regimes together can be complex. Principles that apply in one regime may prove unhelpful in another. For instance, the principle of exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State in the international law of the sea may appear to be an obstacle to the protection of human rights on board that vessel. Conversely, a State may have a duty to protect persons at sea under the international law of the sea but lack jurisdiction under human rights law. For instance, a ship encountering a vessel on the high seas, on board which persons are being abused by its crew and/or its shipmaster, may have a duty to assist those persons in distress; however, they can be denied permission to board that ship by its shipmaster and the flag State that has jurisdiction over the ship. • Finding the appropriate legal avenue to adjudicate issues that impact people at sea – including migrants – can also be extremely challenging. The United Nations Human Rights Committee cannot enforce international maritime treaties, and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) ha