OIT - Child Labour Global estimates 2024, trends and the road forward

GLOBAL ESTIMATES 2024, TRENDS AND THE ROAD FORWARD CHILD LABOURCopyright © International Labour Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund 2025 This is an open access work distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/). Users can reuse, share, adapt and build upon the original work, as detailed in the License. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) must be clearly credited as the owners of the original work. The use of the emblems or logos of the ILO and UNICEF is not permitted in connection with users’ work. Suggested citation. International Labour Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, Child Labour: Global estimates 2024, trends and the road forward, ILO and UNICEF , New York, 2025. License: CC BY 4.0. Translations – In case of a translation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This translation was not created by the International Labour Organization (ILO) or the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and should not be considered an official ILO or UNICEF translation. The ILO and UNICEF are not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. Adaptations – In case of an adaptation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Responsibility for the views and opinions expressed in the adaptation rests solely with the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by the ILO or UNICEF . UNICEF photographs – UNICEF photographs are copyrighted and are not to be reproduced in any medium without obtaining prior written permission. Permissions may be granted upon request for one-time use in a context that accurately represents the real situation and identity of all human beings depicted. UNICEF photographs are not to be used in any commercial context; content may not be digitally altered to change meaning or context;

Permissions may be granted upon request for one-time use in a context that accurately represents the real situation and identity of all human beings depicted. UNICEF photographs are not to be used in any commercial context; content may not be digitally altered to change meaning or context; assets may not be archived by any non-UNICEF entity. Requests for permission to reproduce UNICEF photographs should be addressed to UNICEF , Division of Global Communication and Advocacy, email: nyhqdoc.permit@unicef.org.

Cover photo: © UNICEF/UNI701344/Rasnat ILO ISBN: 978-92-2-042247-2 (print); 978-92-2-042248-9 (web PDF) UNICEF ISBN: 978-92-806-5674-9 (print and web PDF) The designations employed in ILO and UNICEF publications, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the ILO or UNICEF concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.

The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the ILO or UNICEF of the opinions expressed in them. Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the ILO or UNICEF , and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval. Acknowledgements This report has been jointly prepared by the ILO and UNICEF . Members of the core team included Federico Blanco (ILO), Claudia Cappa (UNICEF), Lorenzo Guarcello (ILO), Munkhbadar Jugder (UNICEF), Scott Lyon (ILO), Nicole Petrowski (UNICEF) and Elizabeth Weathersby (ILO). The statistical

work, including the production of the estimates, was conducted by Avichal Mahajan (ILO) and Roger Gomis (ILO) under the supervision of Steven Kapsos (ILO). Data preparation and analysis were carried out by David Bescond (ILO), Federico Blanco (ILO), Claudia Cappa (UNICEF), Lorenzo Guarcello (ILO), Munkhbadar Jugder (UNICEF), Donika Limani (ILO), Nicole Petrowski (UNICEF) and Elizabeth Weathersby (ILO). Special thanks are extended to Yves Perardel (ILO) for his support as manager of the ILO Harmonized Microdata collection. Many ILO and UNICEF colleagues provided valuable inputs and comments, in particular Stephen Blight (UNICEF), Sophie De Coninck (ILO), Monica Darer (UNICEF), Martin Hahn (ILO), Claire La Hovary (ILO), Henrik Moller (ILO), Ben Smith (ILO) and Philippe Vanhuynegem (ILO). The production of the report was coordinated by Claudia Cappa and Nicole Petrowski (UNICEF). The report was edited and copyedited by Gretchen Luchsinger, Lois Jensen and Alice Fogliata Cresswell and designed by Era Porth (independent consultants). United Nations Children’s Fund Data and Analytics Section Division of Data, Analytics, Planning and Monitoring 3 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA Telephone: +1 212 326 7000

Email: data@unicef.org International Labour Organization Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (FUNDAMENTALS) Route des Morillons 4, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland Telephone: + 41 (0) 22 799 6862

Email: childlabour@ilo.org34CONTENTS Child labour at a glance 6

Introduction 10 Current levels and trends 14 Global levels and trends 15 Regional levels and trends 20 Profile of children in child labour 26 Profile by age 27 Profile by sex 29 Characteristics of child labour 32 Sectors of economic activity 33 Hazardous work 38 Child labour and schooling 42 The road forward 46 Annex 52 Statistical tables 54 Overview of the methodology 59 Endnotes 61 5Child labour at a glance 6Child labour at a glance 76.9% 8.6% Current situation Child labour still affects nearly 138 million children worldwide; 54 million of these children are in hazardous work Number and percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour and hazardous work With age, child labour becomes progressively more common among boys than girls Percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour, by age and sex Hazardous work occurs among children of all ages Number and percentage distribution of children aged 5 to 17 years in hazardous work, by age Notes: For statistical measurement, hazardous work includes work in designated hazardous industries and/or hazardous occupations and/or work performed for 43 or more hours per week. Due to rounding, the number of children in hazardous work by age does not add up to the global total.

Note: Due to rounding, some totals do not add up to 100 per cent. 5-11 years 12-14 years 15-17 years Children in child labour 137.6 million, 7.8% Children in hazardous work 54.0 million, 3.1% 19% 10.3 million 24% 12.8 million 57% 30.8 million

Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys 5-11 years 12-14 years 15-17 years Factoring in household chores results in a slightly larger share of girls than boys in child labour

12.8 million 57% 30.8 million Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys 5-11 years 12-14 years 15-17 years Factoring in household chores results in a slightly larger share of girls than boys in child labour Percentage of children aged 5 to 14 years in child labour (including and excluding household chores performed for 21 or more hours per week), by age and sex Child labour excluding household chores Child labour including household chores Girls Girls GirlsBoys Boys Boys 5-11 years 12-14 years 5-14 years 8.1% 11.9% 11.0% 8.3% 11.6% 5.9% 7.7% 11.2% 11.8% 7.5% 8.1% 11.1% Child labour dramatically increases the likelihood that a child will be denied the chance to go to school Percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years not attending school, by age and child labour status 31% 59% 14% 8% 5-14 years 15-17 years In child labour Not in child labour 8.1% 8.3% 5.9% 7.7% 5.2% 10.2% Most child labour is in agriculture, although the relative share diminishes as children grow older Percentage distribution of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour, by age and branch of economic activity 15-17 years 5-17 years 5-11 years 12-14 years Agriculture Industry Services 68% 61% 61% 41% 7% 13% 14% 26% 25% 27% 25% 33% 5-17 years Girls Boys 8Trends and projections Despite recent gains, the fight against child labour will continue for decades into the future without rapidly accelerating progress Number (in millions) of

26% 25% 27% 25% 33% 5-17 years Girls Boys 8Trends and projections Despite recent gains, the fight against child labour will continue for decades into the future without rapidly accelerating progress Number (in millions) of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour and amount of acceleration required to eliminate child labour by different years All regions have seen some progress against child labour since 2020 Number (in millions) and percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour, by ILO region Notes: These figures show regional groupings used for ILO reporting. Comparable historical data prior to 2016 were not available for other regions. Over the last four years, the world has returned to a path of progress to end child labour Number (in millions) and percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour and hazardous work Note: For statistical measurement, hazardous work includes work in designated hazardous industries and/or hazardous occupations and/or work performed for 43 or more hours per week.

Note: These scenarios depict the amount of acceleration required to eliminate child labour by different years in the future based on the compound annual percentage reduction in child labour implied by the difference between prevalence levels in 2020 and 2024.

Note: Due to rounding, the number of children in child labour by age in 2024 does not add up to the global total. 11 times the current pace of progress 7 times the current pace of progress 4 times the current pace of progress 2000 2004 2008 2012 20202016 2024 2000 2004 2008 2012 20202016 2024 2045

Child labour Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and the Caribbean Asia and the Pacific Hazardous work245.5 16.0% 14.2% 13.6% 10.6% 9.6% 9.6% 7.8% 222.3 215.2

Child labour Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and the Caribbean Asia and the Pacific Hazardous work245.5 16.0% 14.2% 13.6% 10.6% 9.6% 9.6% 7.8% 222.3 215.2 168.0 151.6 160.0 137.6 2008 2012 20202016 2024 10.0% 13.3% 25.3% 8.8% 9.3% 21.4% 7.3% 7.4% 22.4% 5.6% 6.0% 23.9% 3.1% 5.5% 21.5% 2008 2012 20202016 2024 14.1 65.1 113.6 12.5 59.0 77.7 10.5 70.0 62.1 8.2 86.6 48.7 7.3 86.6 27.7 Progress against child labour has been slower and more uneven among younger children Number (in millions) and percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour, by age 5-11 years 12-14 years 15-17 years 2008 2012 20202016 2024 2008 2012 20202016 2024 2008 2012 20202016 2024 91.0 73.0 72.6 89.3 78.9 61.8 47.5 41.9 35.6 27.8 62.4 47.5 37.1 35.0 30.8 10.7% 8.5% 8.3%

9.7% 8.2% 17.0% 13.1% 11.7% 9.3% 6.8% 16.9% 13.0% 10.5% 9.5% 7.8% 20602030 245.5 222.3 215.2 168.0 151.6 160.0 137.6 4.7%4.6% 5.4% 7.3% 8.2% 11.1% 170.5 128.4 115.3 85.3 72.5 79.0 54.0 3.1% 9Introduction 10Freedom from child labour is a fundamental human right. It is enshrined in the International Labour Organization (ILO) Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (1998), the ILO fundamental Conventions1 and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Together, these legal instruments embody a global consensus: No child should be engaged in work that harms his or her health, development or future prospects. Realizing this fundamental right is both a legal imperative and a foundation for more just, inclusive societies, beginning with their youngest, most vulnerable members. In 2015, the world made a promise to end child labour by 2025 in Target 8.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). That timeline has now come to an end. But child labour has not. Today, nearly 138 million children remain in child labour worldwide. While the elimination of child labour remains an unfinished task, there is some welcome news. After a concerning rise in child labour captured by the global estimates for 2020, a feared further deterioration in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic has not materialized, and the world has succeeded in returning to a path of progress. Today, there are more than 20 million fewer children in child labour than in 2020. And there are over 100 million fewer children in child labour today than in 2000, even as the child

materialized, and the world has succeeded in returning to a path of progress. Today, there are more than 20 million fewer children in child labour than in 2020. And there are over 100 million fewer children in child labour today than in 2000, even as the child population increased by 230 million over the same period.2 Yet, a closer look at the current situation and trends over time points to a number of particular concerns. Hazardous work continues to constitute a substantial share of child labour, even among children below the legal working age. The last four years saw an encouraging drop in child labour among the youngest children. But this has not undone past setbacks, and the overall number of those aged 5 to 11 years in child labour remains higher than in 2012. Sub-Saharan Africa has made laudable strides in reducing the prevalence of child labour, but given its rapidly growing child population, the number of children in child labour has not decreased. In the mounting number of countries affected by crisis and fragility, the rate of child labour is more than double the global average. This publication provides an overview of these child labour patterns and trends. It also describes the evolving profile of children in child labour, outlines the nature of child labour and where it is concentrated and explores the impact of child labour on schooling. The report concludes with a discussion of the road ahead.3 11Three main international human and labour rights standards – the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the ILO Minimum Age for Admission to Employment Convention (No. 138) and the universally ratified ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182) – set legal boundaries for child labour and provide grounds for national and international actions to end it. In 2008, the 18th International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) approved a resolution on child labour statistics that translates these legal standards into statistical terms for measurement purposes.4 The statistical concepts and definitions underpinning the 2024 estimates are consistent with this resolution.

of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) approved a resolution on child labour statistics that translates these legal standards into statistical terms for measurement purposes.4 The statistical concepts and definitions underpinning the 2024 estimates are consistent with this resolution. Child labour comprises work that children are too young to perform and/or work that, by its nature or circumstances, is likely to harm children’s health, safety or morals. In more technical terms, child labour encompasses work performed by children in any type of employment, with two important exceptions: permitted light work for children within the age range specified for light work; and work that is not classified as among the worst forms of child labour, particularly as hazardous work, for children above the general minimum working age. A broader statistical definition includes hazardous unpaid household services, commonly referred to as hazardous household chores. Employment encompasses any form of market production and certain types of non-market production (principally of goods such as agricultural produce for own use). Employment includes work in both the formal and informal economy, inside and outside family settings, for pay or profit (cash or in-kind, part-time or full-time) and domestic work outside the child’s own household for an employer (paid or unpaid). The concept of permitted light work stems from Article 7 of ILO Convention No. 138, which states that national laws or regulations may permit the Statistical definitions 12employment or work of persons from 13 years of age (or 12 years in countries that have specified the general minimum working age as 14 years) in light work that is not likely to harm their health or development. It should also not limit school attendance, participation in vocational orientation or training programmes, or the capacity to benefit from instruction. For statistical measurement, light work in this report includes employment in nonhazardous work for less than 14 hours a week performed by children aged 12 to 14 years. The worst forms of child labour comprise

or training programmes, or the capacity to benefit from instruction. For statistical measurement, light work in this report includes employment in nonhazardous work for less than 14 hours a week performed by children aged 12 to 14 years. The worst forms of child labour comprise categories set out in Article 3 of ILO Convention No.

182. These entail all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom, and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; child commercial sexual exploitation; the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in relevant international treaties; and work that, by its nature or circumstances, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.

Hazardous work refers to work that, by its nature or circumstances, is likely to harm children’s health, safety or morals. When a country ratifies ILO Convention No. 138 and ILO Convention No. 182, it commits to determining its own hazardous work list. While the list is decided by individual countries after consultation with organizations of employers and workers, the ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation, 1999 (No. 190), supplementing ILO Convention No. 182, urges consideration of work that exposes children to physical, emotional or sexual abuse; work underground, underwater, at dangerous heights or in confined spaces with dangerous machinery, equipment and tools, or that involves the manual handling or transport of heavy loads; work in an unhealthy environment that may, for example, expose children to hazardous substances, agents or processes, or to temperatures, noise levels or vibrations damaging to their health; and work under particularly difficult conditions, such as for long hours or during the night, or that does not allow returning home each day. For statistical measurement, in this report, hazardous work includes that in designated hazardous industries

agents or processes, or to temperatures, noise levels or vibrations damaging to their health; and work under particularly difficult conditions, such as for long hours or during the night, or that does not allow returning home each day. For statistical measurement, in this report, hazardous work includes that in designated hazardous industries and/or hazardous occupations and/or that entails 43 hours or more per week. Hazardous work by children is often treated as a proxy category for the worst forms of child labour for two reasons. First, reliable national data on the worst forms of child labour, other than hazardous work, are still difficult to find. Second, children in hazardous work account for the overwhelming majority of those in the worst forms of child labour. Unpaid household services or household chores refer to services that children provide without pay for their own households. These activities include caring for household members, cleaning and minor household repairs, cooking and serving meals, washing and ironing clothes, and transporting or accompanying family members to and from work and school. In more technical terms, these tasks constitute a ‘non-economic’ form of production and are excluded from consideration in the United Nations System of National Accounts, the internationally agreed-upon guidelines for measuring national economic activity. Hazardous unpaid household services refer to services children provide without pay for their own households, involving long hours, an unhealthy environment, unsafe equipment or heavy loads and/or dangerous locations. For statistical measurement, where household chores are included in the calculation of child labour in this report, hazardous household chores refer to those performed by children below the general minimum working age (below 15) for 21 hours or more per week.5 This broader definition is only used in discussing differences in child labour by sex. 13Current levels and trends 14GLOBAL LEVELS AND TRENDS Nearly 138 million children – 59 million girls and 78 million boys6 – are in child labour, accounting for almost 8 per cent of all children globally. 7 Fifty-four

discussing differences in child labour by sex. 13Current levels and trends 14GLOBAL LEVELS AND TRENDS Nearly 138 million children – 59 million girls and 78 million boys6 – are in child labour, accounting for almost 8 per cent of all children globally. 7 Fifty-four million children, or around 4 in 10 of those in child labour, are in hazardous work likely to harm their health, safety or morals. The global fight against child labour is far from over. With the adoption of the SDGs, the international community committed to ending child labour by 2025. It is now clear that the world has fallen short of this ambitious target. And we know that the persistence of child labour also threatens progress on multiple other SDGs set by the international community. Child labour keeps children out of school (SDG 4), fuelling intergenerational cycles of poverty (SDG 1) and inequality (SDG 10). It weakens economic growth (SDG 8) by limiting workforce productivity and innovation. It harms health and well-being (SDG 3), both in childhood and later life. In supply chains, child labour undermines efforts towards ethical and sustainable production (SDG 12), posing challenges for businesses and consumers alike. Tackling child labour is not just a legal and ethical imperative – it is essential for achieving sustainable development and unlocking long-term economic prosperity. Yet a return to global progress in ending child labour is also evident. The overall number of children in child labour declined by more than 20 million, and the number in hazardous work by even more – 25 million – from 2020 to 2024. Child labour prevalence fell by nearly 2 percentage points over the same period. This progress is very welcome news, especially in light of the rise in the number of children in child labour in the prior four-year period, from 2016 to 2020. The recent progress comes in the wake of concerns that the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting socio-economic crisis would lead to further deterioration. Another encouraging sign is that recent progress has been widespread, although children

of children in child labour in the prior four-year period, from 2016 to 2020. The recent progress comes in the wake of concerns that the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting socio-economic crisis would lead to further deterioration. Another encouraging sign is that recent progress has been widespread, although children in some parts of the world still face greater risks of being in child labour (see Box 1). The fall in child labour over the last four years brings the total reduction in the number of children in child labour to over 100 million since 2000. The decrease occurred amid an overall increase in the global population of children aged 5 to 17 years during the same period. The unfolding progress is encouraging but still far too slow. Meeting SDG Target 8.7 by 2030, the endpoint for the SDGs, would require a pace of change that is 11 times faster than it has been in the last four years. To meet the target by 2045, the pace must accelerate seven times. Even pushing the endpoint to 2060 would still require quadrupling the current pace. The message is stark: Only a massive increase in the speed and scale of action will bring the elimination of child labour within reach. Current levels and trends 15Child labour still affects nearly 138 million children worldwide; 54 million of whom are engaged in hazardous work Fig 1. Number and percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour and hazardous work Over the last four years, the world has returned to a path of progress to end child labour Fig 2. Number (in millions) and percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour and hazardous work Children in child labour 137.6 million, 7.8% Children in hazardous work 54.0 million, 3.1%

2000 2004 2008 2012 20202016 2024 16 Child labour Hazardous work 245.5 222.3 215.2 168.0 151.6 160.0 137.6 4.7%4.6% 5.4% 7.3% 8.2% 11.1% 170.5 128.4 115.3 85.3 72.5 79.0 54.0 3.1% 16.0% 14.2% 13.6% 10.6% 9.6% 9.6% 7.8%Note: See the Annex for details on projection methods. Despite recent gains, the fight against child labour will continue for decades into the future without rapidly accelerating progress Fig 3. Number (in millions) of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour and amount of acceleration required to eliminate child labour by different years 17 11 times the current pace of progress 7 times the current pace of progress 4 times the current pace of progress 2000 2004 2008 2012 20202016 2024 2045 20602030 245.5 222.3 215.2 168.0 151.6 160.0 137.618In conflict zones, child labour prevalence reaches 21 per cent, more than four times higher than in countries that are not conflictaffected or in fragile situations (5 per cent). Even in countries without active conflicts but characterized by weak governance or other sources of institutional or social fragility, child labour remains elevated at 16 per cent. Economic conditions further shape child labour patterns. As national income rises, child labour sharply declines. Nearly one fourth of all children in low-income countries are in child labour, compared to less than 1 per cent in high-income countries – a more than 30fold difference. However, this does not mean that most child labour occurs in low-income countries. On the contrary, due to the larger

of all children in low-income countries are in child labour, compared to less than 1 per cent in high-income countries – a more than 30fold difference. However, this does not mean that most child labour occurs in low-income countries. On the contrary, due to the larger underlying population, many more children are in child labour in lower-middleand uppermiddle-income countries (78.4 million) than in low-income countries (57.7 million). Lower human development corresponds to higher levels of child labour. In countries with low scores on the Human Development Index (HDI), a composite measure indicating social and economic development, child labour prevalence reaches 20 per cent. In nations with very high scores on the index, child labour prevalence is just 2 per cent. While these patterns provide valuable insights, correlation does not imply causation. Child labour is strongly associated with conflict, fragility, poverty and low human development. But relationships among these factors are complex and often shaped by additional underlying causes. Even so, the evidence points to how child labour consistently declines as countries grow more stable, prosperous and equitable. Where is child labour most common?

Notes: (a) According to the Revised Classification of Fragility and Conflict Situations for World Bank Group Engagement, fragile countries are defined as those with one or more of the following: i) the weakest institutional and policy environments (as measured using 16 criteria grouped into four clusters: economic management, structural policies, policies for social inclusion and equity, and public sector management and institutions); ii) the presence of a United Nations peacekeeping operation, since this reflects a decision by the international community that a significant investment is needed to maintain peace and stability; or iii) the flight across borders of 2,000 or more people per 100,000, who are internationally regarded as refugees in need of international protection, as this signals a major political or security crisis. Countries satisfying these criteria and also engaged in mediumor high-intensity

peace and stability; or iii) the flight across borders of 2,000 or more people per 100,000, who are internationally regarded as refugees in need of international protection, as this signals a major political or security crisis. Countries satisfying these criteria and also engaged in mediumor high-intensity conflicts are not considered, since they have gone beyond fragility. (b) Lowincome economies are defined as those with a GNI per capita of $1,145 or less in 2023; lower-middle-income economies are those with a GNI per capita between $1,146 and $4,515; upper-middle-income economies are those with a GNI per capita between $4,516 and $14,005; high-income economies are those with a GNI per capita of more than $14,005. Calculations use the World Bank Atlas method. (c) Countries are grouped into four categories according to the 2022 HDI, which links measures of education, health and income. The ranges are: very high (0.800 or greater), high (0.700 to 0.799), medium (0.550 to 0.699) and low (less than 0.550). Fig 4. Percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour, by conflict and fragility classification, national income group and HDI ranking Box 1 19 Countries in conflictaffected situations Low-income Low HDI Upper-middle income High HDI Countries in fragile situations Lower-middle income Medium HDI Countries in conflictaffected or fragile situations Other countries Conflict and fragilit