OIT - From Organic Waste to Agrifood Value - Appropriate Technologies for Circular Economy and Job Creation

X From Organic Waste to Agrifood

Value: Appropriate Technologies for

Circular Economy and Job Creation Authors / Daniele Epifanio, Christoph Ernst

November / 2025 ILO Working Paper 155© International Labour Organization 2025 Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International. See: https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The user is allowed to reuse, share (copy and redistribute), adapt (remix, transform and build upon the original work) as detailed in the licence. The user must clearly credit the ILO as the source of the material and indicate if changes were made to the original content. Use of the emblem, name and logo of the ILO is not permitted in connection with translations, adaptations or other derivative works. Attribution – The user must indicate if changes were made and must cite the work as follows: Epifanio, D., Ernst, C. From Organic Waste to Agrifood Value: Appropriate Technologies for Circular Economy and Job Creation. ILO Working Paper 155. Geneva: International Labour Office, 2025.© ILO. Translations – In case of a translation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is a translation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This translation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should not be considered an official ILO translation. The ILO disclaims all responsibility for its content and accuracy. Responsibility rests solely with the author(s) of the translation. Adaptations – In case of an adaptation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This adaptation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should

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ISBN 9789220428221 (print), ISBN 9789220428238 (web PDF), ISBN 9789220428245 (epub), ISBN 9789220428252 (html). ISSN 2708-3438 (print), ISSN 2708-3446 (digital) https://doi.org/10.54394/UHHY3867

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Authorization for publication: Christoph Ernst, Lead, IST Team ILO Working Papers can be found at: www.ilo.org/research-and-publications/working-papers Suggested citation: Epifanio, D., Ernst, C. 2025. From Organic Waste to Agrifood Value: Appropriate Technologies for Circular Economy and Job Creation, ILO Working Paper 155 (Geneva, ILO). https://doi.

org/10.54394/UHHY386701 ILO Working Paper 155 Abstract Africa faces a dual challenge of persistent un and underand informal employment—especially among youth and women—and environmental degradation exacerbated by poor waste management. Tailored organic waste management can represent a strong solution to promote both decent work and environmental sustainability. This paper explores how appropriate technologies for managing organic waste can contribute to employment creation and a Just Transition in agrifood systems, particularly in rural and urban settings. The research integrates a desk review with key informant interviews. Identified examples lead to the conclusion that waste-to-agrifood technologies exist along a continuum, ranging from farm-enhancing practices that improve soil health and reduce input costs to income-generating activities that create market opportunities and employment. Composting, biochar production, and black soldier fly farming, among others, illustrate how organic waste can be repurposed into fertilisers, animal feed, and bioenergy, addressing environmental and economic challenges. At smaller scales, they provide direct benefits to smallholder farmers and decentralised communities, while at commercial levels, they create job opportunities downstream and upstream the value chains, from waste collection and proillustrate how organic waste can be repurposed into fertilisers, animal feed, and bioenergy, addressing environmental and economic challenges. At smaller scales, they provide direct benefits to smallholder farmers and decentralised communities, while at commercial levels, they create job opportunities downstream and upstream the value chains, from waste collection and processing to specialized roles in biotechnology or logistics. To unlock their full potential in strengthening agrifood systems, creating green jobs, and advancing sustainable development in Africa, competencies development, investments in infrastructure, financial access, as well as social dialogue are essential. An appropriate technology approach could make organic waste solutions more accessible and adaptable to local contexts. About the authors Mr. Daniele Epifanio, Green Jobs Specialist, Decent Rural Employment Team (DRET), Rural Transformation and Gender Equity Division (ESP), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). This research was carried out by Mr. Epifanio in his capacity as ILO consultant. Mr. Christoph Ernst , Lead, Investments, Sectoral strategies, and Transitions Team (IST), Employment in Investments Branch, Employment Policy, Job Creation and Livelihoods Department (EMPLOYMENT), International Labour Organization (ILO).02 ILO Working Paper 155 Abstract 01 About the authors 01 Acronyms 04 Foreword 06 X Introduction 07 Employment, Agrifood Systems and Organic Waste Inefficiencies in Africa 07 Labour Market Opportunities at the Intersection of Agriculture and Waste Management 08 Principles of Appropriate Technology 08 X 1 Research Methodology 10 X 2 Examples of Appropriate Technologies for Organic Waste Management 13

The Urban Waste Challenge: An Untapped Resource 13

Example: Supporting migrant waste pickers’ livelihoods in Accra, Ghana 14

Composting for Environmental and Social Sustainability 15

Example: From Backyard Composting to Urban Integral Solid Waste Management 16

Example: Integrated Solid Waste Management in Tunis, Tunisia 17

Example: the private sector towards a Just Transition in Zimbabwe 17

Example: Peanut Shells Valorization in Argentina 18

Composting for Environmental and Social Sustainability 15

Example: From Backyard Composting to Urban Integral Solid Waste Management 16

Example: Integrated Solid Waste Management in Tunis, Tunisia 17

Example: the private sector towards a Just Transition in Zimbabwe 17

Example: Peanut Shells Valorization in Argentina 18

Scaling Biochar: A Profitable Agriwaste Solution for Rural Jobs and the Private Sector 18

Example. Private Sector Engagement in Biochar Production in Namibia 19 Turning Waste into Income through the Insect Economy: Black Soldier Flies 20

Example: Black Soldier Fly-Based Feed for Sustainable Tilapia Farming in Zimbabwe 21

Oyster Mushrooms for Climate-Resilient Smallholder Businesses 22

Example: Young Mushroom Agripreneurs under Grant-based Schemes 23

X 3 Dichotomy and Continuum Between Farm-Enhancing and ProfitGenerating Organic Waste Management Technologies 25 X Conclusion 27 References 28 Acknowledgements 32 Table of contents03 ILO Working Paper 155 List of Boxes Box 1. Tackling food loss: upstream organic waste management and valorization 14 Box 2. Online training and resources on composting 16 Box 3. Online training and resources on biochar production 20 Box 4. Online training and resources on oyster mushrooms 2304 ILO Working Paper 155 Acronyms ASH Africa Sun Holdings BSF Black Solider Fly C40 C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group CRCs Carbon Removal Certificates ESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area GHGs Greenhouse Gases ha Hectare ICIPE International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development ILO International Labour Organization IRRC Integrated Resource Recovery Centre

ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management ITDG Intermediate Technology Development Group (now Practical Action) KII Key Informant Interview MEFT Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism of Namibia MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management NEET Not in Employment, Education, or Training OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Tn Metric Ton TPY Tonnes Per Year UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa05 ILO Working Paper 155 UNEP United Nations Environment Programme06 ILO Working Paper 155 Foreword This working paper has been prepared by the Investment, Sectoral Strategies and Transitions Team of the EMPINVEST branch of the ILO. It is in line with its mandate of promoting employment creation (Convention 122), with a focus on the transition to formal jobs for informal workers (Recommendation 204) in the context of a Just Transition to a green economy.

Africa faces a dual challenge: persistent unemployment, underemployment, and informality— especially among youth and women—alongside worsening environmental degradation, largely due to inefficient organic waste management. This research explores how the choice of appropriate technologies for managing organic waste can address both challenges by promoting decent employment and environmental sustainability, especially within agrifood systems in rural and urban areas.

Using a combination of desk research and key informant interviews, this paper identifies a continuum of organic waste-to-agrifood technologies, from low-tech solutions that improve soil health and reduce farm input costs, to commercial ventures generating income and employment opportunities. Technologies such as composting, biochar production, and black soldier fly farming convert organic waste into valuable products like fertilizers, animal feed, and bioenergy. These innovations offer direct benefits to smallholder farmers and communities while creating upstream and downstream employment in value chains—from waste collection and processing to logistics and biotechnology. To scale these solutions and ensure they support a Just Transition in Africa’s agrifood systems, key enablers include: Investment in infrastructure and technology, skills development and capacity building, access to finance, social dialogue and inclusive policymaking. To unlock the full employment and sustainability potential of organic waste management techTo scale these solutions and ensure they support a Just Transition in Africa’s agrifood systems, key enablers include: Investment in infrastructure and technology, skills development and capacity building, access to finance, social dialogue and inclusive policymaking. To unlock the full employment and sustainability potential of organic waste management technologies, the following actions are essential: skills and competency development, investment in infrastructure and technology, financial inclusion, social dialogue and policy support. It is key to engage stakeholders—workers’ and employers’ organizations, government, including local communities, and the private sector—in policy development and promote integrated approaches linking employment, waste, agriculture, and climate goals. Ensuring a “Just Transition”—by promoting decent jobs and skills development—will be key for aligning circular economy goals (SDG 12 on responsible consumption and production) with decent work (SDG 8). In this regard, the appropriate technology choice could support the creation of decent jobs while ensuring environment sustainability. Mito Tsukamoto Chief Employment and Investment Branch (EMPINVEST), Employment Policy, Job Creation and Livelihoods Department (EMPLOYMENT) ILO07 ILO Working Paper 155 X Introduction Employment, Agrifood Systems and Organic Waste Inefficiencies in Africa In 2023, 145 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa lived in extreme working poverty, with resilience further strained by climate shocks, conflict, and limited fiscal space (ILO, 2024b). Furthermore, by 2030, Africa’s youth population will reach 200 million, and by 2050, the continent is expected to grow by 950 million people (UNECA, 2024), increasing pressure on food systems and the need for decent jobs. Employment trends across Africa vary between regions. North Africa has low formal employment, especially among women, whose participation is 49 percentage points below men’s (ILO, 2024b). Sub-Saharan Africa faces high informality and underemployment, with nearly one in four youth not in employment, education or training (NEET) in 2023 (ILO, 2024a). Young women face

ment, especially among women, whose participation is 49 percentage points below men’s (ILO, 2024b). Sub-Saharan Africa faces high informality and underemployment, with nearly one in four youth not in employment, education or training (NEET) in 2023 (ILO, 2024a). Young women face greater barriers, and 8.9 million youth lived near conflict zones in 2022. A key barrier remains, the skills mismatch: in agrifood systems, two-thirds of youth are mismatched—40 per cent underqualified, and 24 per cent overqualified (OECD, 2021). Moreover, in rural areas, informal apprenticeships and poorly trained trainers contribute to a lack of recognised skills (ILO, 2012), limiting youth participation in green agrifood transformation. Addressing this gap is a policy priority and requires interventions that equip rural youth with both technical know-how and skills that enable them to contribute meaningfully to transforming agrifood systems and creating productive and decent employment. Moreover, informal apprenticeships1 are widely used to learn skills and acquire competencies for employment in the informal economy of many developing countries. Agriculture is central to Africa’s economy, accounting for a significant share of GDP and employing 1.23 billion people globally and sustaining 3.83 billion people living in households that depend on agriculture (Davis, B. et al., 2023), who produce up to 70 per cent of the continent’s food (IFAD, n.d.). Yet productivity remains low due to outdated practices, limited access to finance and technologies, and poor infrastructure. Over 257 million Africans already face undernourishment (FAO & ECA, 2018), while post-harvest losses reach 40 per cent for perishables and storage capacity covers less than ten per cent of food production (World Bank, 2025). Thus, weaknesses in agriculture reinforce both food insecurity and waste generation. Urbanization and population growth are projected to triple Africa’s waste by 2050 (World Bank, 2018). Waste collection rates remain low, averaging 44 per cent in Sub-Saharan Africa, but rural

agriculture reinforce both food insecurity and waste generation. Urbanization and population growth are projected to triple Africa’s waste by 2050 (World Bank, 2018). Waste collection rates remain low, averaging 44 per cent in Sub-Saharan Africa, but rural areas are particularly underserved. Organic waste dominates in lowand middle-income contexts, accounting for 50–80 percent of municipal streams and 35 per cent of urban emissions (ESCAP , 2017; C40 Cities & Accra Metropolitan Assembly, 2024). Poor systems drive illegal dumping, environmental degradation, and health risks, while their economic costs exceed those of proper treatment (C40, 2019a). In African cities, organic waste is still largely landfilled or incinerated. Both approaches are inefficient and generate very few jobs: only 1.8 jobs/10,000 tons per year— far below composting or other reuse strategies (Ribeiro-Broomhead, J. et al., 2021). Incineration 1 Informal apprenticeship is a skills transfer from a master craftsperson to a young apprentice who get the skills through imitation, observation, and then repetition while working with the master craftsperson (for more information, see ILO, 2012.08 ILO Working Paper 155 is especially unsuitable for organic waste, which has high moisture content and greater energy costs (M. Brown, 2015; ESCAP , 2017). Recycling plants also require highly skilled staff, often lacking in low-income settings. Despite its modern image, incineration does not qualify as a green solution, as it neither creates sufficient jobs nor aligns with clean energy pathways (Zero Waste Europe, 2023). Labour Market Opportunities at the Intersection of Agriculture and Waste Management Informal workers make up 28 per cent of global agricultural employment and often face food insecurity, low incomes, and limited protection.2 In Africa, smallholders generate most of the food supply but struggle with low productivity and inadequate access to credit, technology, and infrastructure. Large volumes of manure, crop residues, and post-harvest losses are wasted, harmsecurity, low incomes, and limited protection.2 In Africa, smallholders generate most of the food supply but struggle with low productivity and inadequate access to credit, technology, and infrastructure. Large volumes of manure, crop residues, and post-harvest losses are wasted, harming ecosystems but also representing a missed opportunity. Valorization of these waste streams into compost, biofertiliser, biogas, or animal feed can reduce chemical dependence, improve soil health, and create rural jobs. Urban waste systems also hold potential. An estimated 19–24 million people worldwide work in waste collection and recycling, yet only four million are formally employed (ILO, 2013). In African cities, waste pickers—often women and marginalized groups—are vital to recycling yet remain excluded from formal systems and exposed to unsafe conditions (UNDP , 2023). Recognizing their contribution and creating pathways to dignity and protection is crucial for building inclusive green economies. Circular economy approaches that valorize organic waste—such as composting, biochar, or insect-based recycling—can generate scalable, labour-intensive opportunities. With appropriate technologies, skills, and policy frameworks, these solutions can shift from farm support to income generation, particularly for smallholders, urban waste systems, and decentralized communities. This study therefore explores how technological choices, policy frameworks, and education systems interact to shape youth-sensitive employment opportunities in organic waste management, while addressing environmental degradation and food system pressures. Principles of Appropriate Technology In recent discussions on development economics, the focus has shifted away from the sheer quantity of growth to its qualitative aspects, particularly productive transformation and the dynamics of the growth process. Structural and technological change, along with the development of social capabilities, plays a crucial role in driving technology development and innovation, but also productivity, income growth, job creation, the transition to formality, as well as poverty reduction. Lessons from Asia show that sustained growth emerges from employment-oriented structural change and rapid technological learning (Nübler and Ernst, 2013). Technology encompasses more than physical tools; it also includes skills, processes, organizational arrangements,

duction. Lessons from Asia show that sustained growth emerges from employment-oriented structural change and rapid technological learning (Nübler and Ernst, 2013). Technology encompasses more than physical tools; it also includes skills, processes, organizational arrangements, and the goods or services produced (Practical Action, n.d.). Technological change and the evolution of employment is not deterministic, but needs to be shaped (Nübler, 2016) by policies, regulations and institutions, which is a social construct. Market adjustment and a process of societal learning processes are key endogenous factors for the job-creation dynamics Yet, transferring 2 See Agriculture; plantations; other rural sectors | International Labour Organization, consulted on 14 April 2025.09 ILO Working Paper 155 modern, capital-intensive technologies from industrialized contexts often fails in developing settings when local skills and institutions are not taken into account. The concept of appropriate technology arose to address these challenges. Popularized by Schumacher’s Small is Beautiful (1974) and later promoted by the Intermediate Technology Development Group (Baron, C.G., 1978), it refers to accessible, labour-intensive, energy-efficient, and environmentally sound solutions that communities can manage autonomously (Barrett, H. et al., 2003). However, critics warn against assuming that a single technological pathway is universally “appropriate,” as this risks imposing external values and excluding local perspectives (Hollick, M., 1982). For this reason, the ILO has emphasized that technology selection must be embedded in social dialogue among social partners and the government, inclusive decision-making, and broader strategies addressing poverty and inequality. Historically, technology choices have prioritized efficiency over inclusivity, neglecting opportunities for local capacity development. By contrast, appropriate technologies, especially in labour-intensive, capital-scarce economies, can foster learning, skill-building, and job creation for informal workers, provided they are both viable and context-sensitive (Ernst et al., 2023). The goal is not to rely exclusively on labour-intensive methods but to balance them with capital-intensive ones, optimizing both efficiency and capability development. In agricultural waste management,

mal workers, provided they are both viable and context-sensitive (Ernst et al., 2023). The goal is not to rely exclusively on labour-intensive methods but to balance them with capital-intensive ones, optimizing both efficiency and capability development. In agricultural waste management, smallholders in Africa already engage in farm-waste recycling and composting, though often at low efficiency. Supporting regenerative, climate-smart practices adapted to local contexts can strengthen productivity, expand employment, and ensure sustainable adoption without undermining traditional systems. In agriculture, reusing organic waste (e.g., composting) is common but needs support for regenerative, climate-smart solutions tailored to local practices ● Farm-enhancing technologies: low capital investment, improve soil fertility, reduce input costs, and mitigate environmental degradation (e.g: Composting, biochar application) ● Profit-generating technologies: require more infrastructure, investment, and coordination (e.g: mushrooms, insect-based feed, biogas, organic fertilizers) - Provide income opportunities, reduce landfill use, and create jobs ● Capability-generating technologies: combination of imported (and adjusted) and local, traditional technologies enhancing a learning process of local communities, workers and economic units The key factors influencing the transition to the adoption of a new technology are as follows: ● Scale, market access, investment, and policy support ● Skills development for capability development, creating local jobs, higher productivity & income ● Technologies like biochar or compost become profit-generating when value is added through processing, branding, or linking to markets ● Incentives like subsidies, carbon pricing, Technical and Vocational Education and Training support and grants help technologies scale and transition to profitable ventures10 ILO Working Paper 155 X 1 Research Methodology

A qualitative research methodology was used, integrating a desk review of relevant literature and documented best practices with Key Informant Interviews (KII). The technology examples were identified among peer-reviewed literature, technical reports, case study documentation, and grey literature from international organizations such as ILO, FAO, UNDP , as well as websites and news. The selection was guided by the following criteria (selection framework) to ensure

were identified among peer-reviewed literature, technical reports, case study documentation, and grey literature from international organizations such as ILO, FAO, UNDP , as well as websites and news. The selection was guided by the following criteria (selection framework) to ensure alignment with the research objectives: a) identify technologies that utilise agricultural organic waste to generate value-added products or services; b) identify alternative technological solutions for organic waste transformation; c) select predominantly examples from African countries; d) select examples of technologies that are resource-efficient, low-cost, and have the potential to be scalable or replicable (appropriate technology); e) focus on technologies that are linked to Africa’s major agricultural value chains. For the selection of case studies, appropriate technologies linked to the main African agricultural activities and their main sub-categories have been prioritized according to FAO statistics on total production (tn) and total cultivated land (ha) in 2023 (FAO, n.d.) including cereal, legumes/pulses, animal waste, oilseed, root and tuber waste. X Figure 1: criteria for the selection of the examples To analyze and categorize case studies of organic waste transformation technologies, a set of guiding criteria was adopted and complemented with KIIs. Table 1 was used as a guiding instrument to identify key aspects related to each technology across various dimensions, including material availability, economic feasibility, environmental suitability, social and cultural acceptance, and technological readiness. This research establishes a categorization of technologies about their contextual relevance and does not intend to evaluate whether case studies represent examples of appropriate technology. Case studies and examples were further developed and complemented with KIIs. Out of 23 contacted, a total of nine Key Informants from UN Agencies, Private Sector, and Academia were interviewed.11 ILO Working Paper 155 X Table 1: categories utilized for case study evaluation Type Category Details Inputs/Outputs Category of final product Animal feed, compost, bioenergy, etc. Types and availability of organic waste utilised List specific types (e.g., crop residues, food waste) and assess local availability

X Table 1: categories utilized for case study evaluation Type Category Details Inputs/Outputs Category of final product Animal feed, compost, bioenergy, etc. Types and availability of organic waste utilised List specific types (e.g., crop residues, food waste) and assess local availability Scale of the production Smallholder scale, small/medium commercial scale, or industrial scale Transport and storage requirements Infrastructure needed (e.g., cold chains, fermentation plots, biodigesters) Technological Type of technology Specific tools, machines, or systems required, including water and electricity Maintenance and spare parts Availability and accessibility of spare parts and technical support at local and country level Economic Market demand Presence of a market for the technology's outputs (e.g., biofertilizers, bioenergy) Cost-effectiveness Affordability and observed return on investment Human Resources Skillset needs Required skills to operate the technology (e.g., university education, vocational training) Skills transfer potential Opportunities for skills transfers to local workforce Skillset availability Availability of skilled labour in the area/ country Employment creation # of workers required relative to the scale of the system Climatic/Environmental Climatic suitability Optimal climatic conditions for the technology (e.g., temperature, humidity, rainfall) Ecological impact Effects on local ecology, including biodiversity, carbon footprint, and potential introduction of non-native species Social/Cultural Community acceptance Alignment with local culture, habits, and willingness to adopt the technology Compatibility with existing waste transformation practices Extent of alignment or conflict with existing waste transformation practices Social inclusion Opportunities to involve marginalized groups, youth, and women in the technology’