OIT - Lifelong learning and skills for the future

2026 Lifelong learning and skills for the future World of Work Series Lifelong learning and skills for the futureLifelong Learning Skills for the Future and© International Labour Organization 2026. First published 2026. Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International. See: creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0 . The user is allowed to reuse, share (copy and redistribute), adapt (remix, transform and build upon the original work) as detailed in the licence. The user must clearly credit the ILO as the source of the material and indicate if changes were made to the original content. Use of the emblem, name and logo of the ILO is not permitted in connection with translations, adaptations or other derivative works. Attribution – The user must indicate if changes were made and must cite the work as follows: International Labour Organization, Lifelong learning and skills for the future, World of Work Series, Geneva: International Labour Office, 2026. © ILO. Translations – In case of a translation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is a translation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This translation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should not be considered an official ILO translation. The ILO disclaims all responsibility for its content and accuracy. Responsibility rests solely with the author(s) of the translation. Adaptations – In case of an adaptation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This adaptation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should not be considered an official ILO adaptation. The ILO disclaims all responsibility for its content and accuracy. Responsibility rests solely with the author(s) of the adaptation. Third-party materials – This Creative Commons licence does not apply to non-ILO copyright materials included in this publication. If

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ISBN: 9789220433195 (print); 9789220433201 (accessible PDF)

ISSN: 3106-941X (print); 3106-9428 (online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.54394/00033011

Also available in: French ISBN 9789220433232 (print); 9789220433249 (accessible PDF); DOI https://doi.org/10.54394/00033015

Spanish ISBN 9789220433218 (print); 9789220433225 (accessible PDF); DOI https://doi.org/10.54394/00033013 lifelong learning / skills development / skills requirements 06.08.1 ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data The designations employed in ILO publications and databases, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the ILO concerning the legal status

of any country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. See: www.ilo.org/ disclaimer. The opinions and views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the opinions, views or policies of the ILO. Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the ILO, and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval. Photo credits – Front cover: Two young workers are learning together in a server room, preparing for the future of work, 03/2026 © Enrique León / ILO Printed in Switzerland Produced by the Publications Production and Publishing Management Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. The ILO endeavours to use paper sourced from forests managed in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner.

Code: DESIGN/EMG//PPM/PMSERVForeword Angelique Kahindo, a Congolese refugee in Uganda, joined an apprenticeship programme, training as a tailor with a local artisan. Over six months, she learned new skills – from designing, sewing and repairing garments to bookkeeping, budgeting and customer service. She has since opened her own business and now earns a steady income to support herself and her children.

Her journey illustrates how access to learning can transform lives, mirroring the experiences of countless others for whom skills development is not an abstract policy goal, but a path to dignity, resilience and hope. Businesses, too, transform through learning. As part of ILO programmes, for example, enterprise owners and workers across the world take part in training and receive hands-on coaching to improve how their workplaces run. Many participating enterprises report higher productivity, stronger teamwork and better working conditions. Experiences such as these show that learning and skills development at different stages of life are powerful tools to empower workers and help businesses innovate. This potential has broad relevance in the face of today’s labour market transformations – be they driven by new technologies (including artificial intelligence), the green transition, demographic shifts or geopolitical

Experiences such as these show that learning and skills development at different stages of life are powerful tools to empower workers and help businesses innovate. This potential has broad relevance in the face of today’s labour market transformations – be they driven by new technologies (including artificial intelligence), the green transition, demographic shifts or geopolitical developments. Lifelong learning and skills development must therefore represent a central element of any successful growth and development strategy. Yet, opportunities to learn remain unequally distributed, often mirroring broader social and economic divides. At the ILO, we have been motivated by the observation that there is still no recent, authoritative and comprehensive report on these topics. Aiming to fill this void, this report develops a broad and integrated understanding of learning throughout life. Lifelong learning is relevant not only to improve the outcomes of workers and enterprises, but also to advance broader societal goals. Because the report identifies gaps and inequalities in access to lifelong learning – especially in the world of work – it subsequently analyses the types of skills that are most needed in today’s labour markets, demonstrating the importance of developing rounded sets of skills. In addition to enabling workers to acquire skills that help them adapt to a changing world of work, the adequate valuation of those skills by markets and societies is equally important. Looking ahead, the message is clear: fostering lifelong learning is a shared responsibility that requires addressing both individual barriers and systemic challenges. Building coherent and integrated systems is essential for lifelong learning and skills development to become truly inclusive and adaptive. Financing remains a central challenge but should be recognized as an investment with high future returns. These efforts demand sustained collaboration between governments and employers’ and workers’ organizations. If implemented effectively and pursued collectively, lifelong learning can underpin inclusive growth and decent work, while shaping a more adaptable, innovative and sustainable future of work. Gilbert F. Houngbo ILO Director-General ILO, “As a refugee, my new skills have given my family hope”, https://voices.ilo.org/stories/as-a-refugee-my-newskills-have-given-my-family-hope .IV Lifelong learning and skills for the future Acknowledgements

Gilbert F. Houngbo ILO Director-General ILO, “As a refugee, my new skills have given my family hope”, https://voices.ilo.org/stories/as-a-refugee-my-newskills-have-given-my-family-hope .IV Lifelong learning and skills for the future Acknowledgements This report was prepared by a team led by Verónica Escudero, Senior Economist of the ILO Research Department, under the supervision of Caroline Fredrickson, Director of the ILO Research Department, and Richard Samans, former Director. We would like to thank both directors for their unwavering support and strategic guidance during the course of the project. Their leadership has been instrumental in bringing this report to fruition. The authors of the different chapters in alphabetical order are: Chapter 1: Isaure Delaporte, Verónica Escudero, Dorothea Hoehtker, Hannah Liepmann (Research Department) and Pedro Moreno da Fonseca (Skills and Employability Branch of the ILO Employment Department). Chapter 2: Sévane Ananian and Pelin Sekerler Richiardi (Research Department), with written contributions by Kristen Sobeck (Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University). Chapter 3: Willian Adamczyk, Verónica Escudero and Hannah Liepmann, with written contributions by Simon Böhmer (Research Department). Chapter 4: Willian Adamczyk, Isaure Delaporte, Verónica Escudero and Hannah Liepmann. Chapter 5: Isaure Delaporte, Verónica Escudero, Hannah Liepmann and Pedro Moreno da Fonseca, with written contributions by Simon Böhmer. This flagship report has greatly benefitted from the close and productive collaboration between the ILO Research Department and the Skills and Employability Branch of the ILO Employment Policy Department. We extend our sincere thanks to Sangheon Lee, Director of the Employment Policy Department, and to Srinivas B. Reddy, Chief of the Skills and Employability Branch, for their support and commitment to fostering synergies between technical research and policy

Policy Department. We extend our sincere thanks to Sangheon Lee, Director of the Employment Policy Department, and to Srinivas B. Reddy, Chief of the Skills and Employability Branch, for their support and commitment to fostering synergies between technical research and policy implementation. We also wish to thank the entire Skills and Employability Branch team for their continuous engagement, insightful comments and valuable guidance throughout the preparation of the report, in particular Pedro Moreno da Fonseca for his key role in steering this collaboration. The collaboration ensured a seamless interface between evidence-based research and policy-oriented analysis on skills and lifelong learning. The report draws extensively on innovative and diverse data sources, including newly collected ILO lifelong learning surveys and collaborative big data initiatives. Pelin Sekerler Richiardi oversaw the individual-level ILO lifelong learning survey piloted in Bangladesh, Fiji and the United Republic of Tanzania, while Pedro Moreno da Fonseca coordinated the ILO institutional lifelong learning survey conducted across 21 countries. We extend our sincere appreciation to the ILO regional and country offices (especially the ILO Regional Office for Africa, the ILO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, the Country Offices in Dar es Salaam, Dhaka and Fiji) for their active engagement and financial support, and to the national partners who collaborated in the survey implementation, including the National Bureau of Statistics of the United Republic of Tanzania.VV

We are also thankful to CINTERFOR and skills specialists in Decent Work Teams for their support in the implementation of the institutional surveys. We would particularly like to recognize the support of ILO colleagues from the field, Andrew Allieu, Milagros Castro, Xian Guan, Ahmed Hassan, Edmund Moshy, Albert Okal, Peter Rademaker, Mohammad Mohebur Rahman, Akiko Sakamoto, Laura Schmid, Ken Chamuva Shawa and Christian Viegelahn for facilitating relations with local partners and discussions on survey tools. ILO statisticians from headquarters and the field provided insightful comments on the survey designs and methodologies. Visiting researcher Haitao Zheng (Chinese Academy of Labour and Social Security) provided helpful support implementing the ILO institutional lifelong learning survey.

on survey tools. ILO statisticians from headquarters and the field provided insightful comments on the survey designs and methodologies. Visiting researcher Haitao Zheng (Chinese Academy of Labour and Social Security) provided helpful support implementing the ILO institutional lifelong learning survey. The big data analysis was enriched through collaboration with the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), especially Salim Araji and Sama El Hage Sleiman, in addition to Roy Doumit, Maksym Hermez, Tia Mokdad and Le Wu. We also wish to acknowledge the collaboration with the ILO Country Office in Algiers, especially Gilles Cols and Mustapha Ziroili, as well as the National Agency for the Promotion of Employment and Skills (ANAPEC) in Morocco for their contributions to data analysis and methodological discussions. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of external collaborators Giordano de Marzo, Trang Luu and Kaja Rupieper, whose insights helped sharpen the analysis and ensure its policy relevance. We also thank our highly committed interns for their expert research assistance at different stages of the report production: Claudia Abdallah, Cloe Barbera, Mariano Calderón, Melchor de la Cruz Rothenfusser, Ludovica Gerbino, Evgeny Gushchin, Elvire Jégu, Samantha Metevier, María Angélica Moreno Barrera, Karina Narbikova, Franziska Riepl and Mareike Sehrer. We thank colleagues across the ILO for their substantive comments, peer review and statistical and methodological inputs during various stages of the project, in particular: Thais Adileu Oliveira, Ashwani Aggarwal, Uma Rani Amara, Samuel Asfaha, Lara Badre, Giovanna Beaulieu, Janine Berg, David Bescond, Adelle Blackett, Gabriel Bordado, Paloma Carillo, Hae Kyeung Chun, Marva Corley-Coulibaly, Patrick Daru, Yacouba Diallo, Antonio

Giovanna Beaulieu, Janine Berg, David Bescond, Adelle Blackett, Gabriel Bordado, Paloma Carillo, Hae Kyeung Chun, Marva Corley-Coulibaly, Patrick Daru, Yacouba Diallo, Antonio Rinaldo Discenza, Sabrina de Gobbi, Ekkehard Ernst, Valeria Esquivel, Tite Habiyakare, Marek Harsdorff, Christine Hofmann, Aya Jaafar, Tahmina Karimova, Vipasana Karkee, Takaaki Kizu, Stefan Kühn, Claire La Hovary, Donika Limani, Nicolas Maitre, Quentin Mathys, Maria Payet, Yves Perardel, Céline Peyron-Bista, Emanuela Pozzan, Iuliia Privalikhina, Nikolai Rogovsky, Catherine Saget, Miguel Sánchez Martínez, Ken Chamuva Shawa, Sergei Soares, Valentina Stoevska, Olga Strietska-Ilina, Bolormaa Tumurchudur-Klok, Samantha Watson and Morgan Williams. Special thanks are due to Sher Verick, from the Office of the DeputyVI Lifelong learning and skills for the future Director-General, for his thoughtful feedback and engagement during the final stages of the report’s preparation. We also thank all others who provided comments, including those who did so anonymously. The report benefited from the guidance of the members of the ILO Research Review Group, namely Bart van Ark (University of Manchester), Jennifer Bair (University of Virginia), Iain Begg (London School of Economics and Political Science), Haroon Bhorat (University of Cape Town), Fang Lee Cooke (Monash University), Michael Fung (Tecnológico de Monterrey), James Galbraith (Texas LBJ School of Public Affairs), Núria Rodríguez-Planas (City University of New York), Kamala Sankaran (National Law School of India University) and Robert Skidelsky (University of Warwick), whose expertise and constructive feedback strengthened the analytical coherence of the report.

James Galbraith (Texas LBJ School of Public Affairs), Núria Rodríguez-Planas (City University of New York), Kamala Sankaran (National Law School of India University) and Robert Skidelsky (University of Warwick), whose expertise and constructive feedback strengthened the analytical coherence of the report. We acknowledge the comments and contributions of additional academic experts: Miguel Ángel Malo (University of Salamanca), Ronald Bachmann (RWI – Leibniz Institute for Economic Research), Maria Julia Granata and Josefina Posadas (World Bank Group), Ariane Hegewisch (Institute for Women’s Policy Research), Michele Pellizzari (Université de Genève), Fabien Petit (University of Barcelona and University College London), Johnny Sung (Institute for Adult Learning) and three anonymous referees whose feedback on the underlying methodologies and analytical approaches informed parts of this report. The team wishes to thank the ILO Publications Production and Publishing Management Unit for providing production project management, graphic design including the cover, copy-editing, typesetting and proofreading. We also thank the Department of Communication and Public Information (DCOMM) for coordinating the launch of the report and related dissemination activities. We are equally grateful to the Information and Communications Technology Department (INFOTEC) for their continuous technical support in maintaining and upgrading the data server infrastructure. A final and special acknowledgement is for Alessandro Ippolito Neira for developing the accompanying web platform and for his continuous engagement and communication support throughout the project and for Judy Rafferty, who shepherded the report during the many production stages. We are also grateful to Janine Berg for her decisive support in both the initial and final stages of the report production. Finally, we thank administrative colleagues whose behind-the-scenes contributions kept the production moving smoothly, including Sarah Alvarez, Béatrice Guillemain and Thuy Nguyen Couture. To all who have assisted – whether named or unnamed – we extend our heartfelt thanks. Their collective contribution has made this global-scale assessment of lifelong learning and skills dynamics possible.VIIVII Abbreviations AI artificial intelligence

including Sarah Alvarez, Béatrice Guillemain and Thuy Nguyen Couture. To all who have assisted – whether named or unnamed – we extend our heartfelt thanks. Their collective contribution has made this global-scale assessment of lifelong learning and skills dynamics possible.VIIVII Abbreviations AI artificial intelligence ALMPs active labour market policies CEACR Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia EU European Union GDP gross domestic product HRDF Human Resource Development Fund ICT information and communication technology ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations LFS labour force surveys NEET not in education, employment or training NLP natural language processing OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PIAAC Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies RPL recognition of prior learning SDG Sustainable Development Goal TVET technical vocational education and training UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization VHS Volkshochschulen AbbreviationsVIII Lifelong learning and skills for the futureIXIX Executive summary Executive summary Lifelong learning and skills for the future Lifelong learning is not a new concept – but it has never been more important. In the face of rapid technological innovation, the green transition, demographic shifts and evolving patterns of globalization and work, the ability of individuals and societies to keep learning and adapting to new realities is a critical foundation for inclusion and resilience. This report argues that lifelong learning should be elevated as a strategic policy priority – not just as a tool to increase productivity and facilitate sustainable growth, but also as a systemic enabler of personal and societal advancement, equity and decent work in the twenty-first century. However, despite the growing policy focus on lifelong learning and skills development, there remains a striking gap in comprehensive, authoritative, up-to-date research that captures the full scope of lifelong learning. Much of the existing evidence remains scattered and overemphasizes initial formal education, overlooking the diverse and dynamic ways people acquire and apply skills throughout life. This underscores the need to rethink lifelong learning beyond formal education and training.

Countries must move beyond fragmented initiatives and commit to building lifelong learning systems that are inclusive by design, effective in practice and future-ready by orientation. Only then can we ensure that everyone, everywhere, has the opportunity to learn, work and live with dignity in a changing world.XVII Contents Foreword .................................................................... III Acknowledgements....................................................... IV Abbreviations.............................................................. VII Executive summary ............................................... IX Part 1. A broad view of lifelong learning ........... XXIV Chapter 1. Exploring lifelong learning: History and concepts of skills promotion.............. 1 1.1. Introduction ........................................................... 1 1.2. Historical evolution of the lifelong learning concept......... 3 1.2.1. From lifelong education to lifelong learning ........................... 3 1.2.2. The ILO and lifelong learning ........................................ 11 1.3. Constructing a definition of lifelong learning................. 13 1.3.1. Lifelong learning in ILO instruments and other key documents........ 13 1.3.2. Stakeholder perspectives on lifelong learning in the world of work .... 16 1.3.3. Definition of lifelong learning........................................ 18 1.4. Operationalizing lifelong learning............................... 19 1.4.1. Conceptual framework of lifelong learning used in this report......... 19 1.4.2. Lifelong learning as a system: Challenges and implementation....... 22 1.4.3. Diversity in the evolution of lifelong learning systems ............... 23 1.5. Conclusion............................................................ 25 References .................................................................. 26XVIII Lifelong learning and skills for the future Chapter 2. Lifelong learning worldwide: Measuring its three dimensions ........................... 35 2.1. Introduction ......................................................... 35 2.2. Lifelong learning in education................................... 37 2.2.1. Investment in education............................................ 38 2.2.2. Educational outcomes and exclusion ................................ 39 2.3. Lifelong learning in the world of work......................... 44 2.3.1. Overview of learning in the world of work ............................ 47

the full scope of lifelong learning. Much of the existing evidence remains scattered and overemphasizes initial formal education, overlooking the diverse and dynamic ways people acquire and apply skills throughout life. This underscores the need to rethink lifelong learning beyond formal education and training. Learning takes place in many settings – in the classroom, at work, in communities and families – often through non-formal, informal or other non-traditional means. Yet, in this context, participation in lifelong learning beyond the classroom lags behind and remains uneven, and the systems that support it are often fragmented, under-resourced and poorly coordinated. Drawing from new survey and institutional data, big data analysis and impact evaluations, this report offers a comprehensive road map for countries to transform lifelong learning systems and use them to build inclusive and resilient labour markets. The report is organized in three parts. Part 1 lays the conceptual foundations, defining lifelong learning and mapping its development across education, work and society. Part 2 focuses on the world of work, examining which skills matter most for better employment outcomes and adaptability, using big data and novel methods. Part 3 brings these insights together, outlining the policy conditions for performing lifelong learning systems and effective skills programmes. Taken together, the findings offer a powerful call to action: inclusive, high-quality and responsive lifelong learning must be at the centre of labour market policy – and growth and development strategies more broadly – in an era of fundamental change.X Lifelong learning and skills for the future Part 1. A broad view of lifelong learning Rethinking lifelong learning: A broader, integrated vision The idea of lifelong learning has evolved from a philosophical ideal into a core principle for navigating today’s complex labour markets and societal transformations. While the roots of lifelong learning can be traced back to ancient thinkers and traditions across different societies, its modern form is relatively recent. The concept gained prominence in the second half of the twentieth century, and the term lifelong learning gradually replaced lifelong education in the late 1990s – shifting from a focus on formal education to a more holistic vision encompassing learning across all domains of life.

its modern form is relatively recent. The concept gained prominence in the second half of the twentieth century, and the term lifelong learning gradually replaced lifelong education in the late 1990s – shifting from a focus on formal education to a more holistic vision encompassing learning across all domains of life. Over time, this vision has broadened to reflect not only economic aims but also social, civic and environmental objectives. Still, in practice, lifelong learning policies and discourse often continue to emphasize employability and individual responsibility, with less attention to collective and societal dimensions. This tension between a broad conceptual vision and a narrower implementation remains at the heart of current debates on how to build inclusive and balanced lifelong learning systems. The ILO has long contributed to this debate, promoting universal access to lifelong learning as an integral part of the right to education and training, and as a cornerstone of decent work and social justice. But more needs to be done collectively to move from principle to practice and strengthen the normative framework to make the right to lifelong learning a reality for all. This broad and inclusive interpretation is essential in a world where continuous upskilling and reskilling are critical for individuals and enterprises. Though, it should also serve the broader needs of societies and economies that extend well beyond the interests of individual actors. To capture this full scope, this report proposes a comprehensive definition aligned with international labour standards, that goes beyond access to education to include all formal, non-formal and informal learning activities undertaken throughout life. It encompasses all learning activities undertaken throughout life, individually or collectively, whether in educational, work, family or other social contexts. It emphasizes the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes or behaviours conducive to learning that respond to both individual and collective aspirations and needs, irrespective of formal certification outcomes. To operationalize this definition, the report introduces a three-pillar framework: ▶ education or schooling: the foundation of learning systems and skills acquisition; ▶ learning in the world of work: the continuous development of competencies through and at work; ▶ broader societal learning: learning that occurs in communities, families and civil society.

▶ education or schooling: the foundation of learning systems and skills acquisition; ▶ learning in the world of work: the continuous development of competencies through and at work; ▶ broader societal learning: learning that occurs in communities, families and civil society. This framework serves as a practical lens to identify gaps, track progress and align policy efforts. It underscores that lifelong learning is not the responsibility of one actor or sector but requires an integrated approach across governments, employers, workers and education providers. However, to make this vision a reality, systems must be in place to support it: inclusive governance structures, equitable financing, quality assurance mechanisms, data systems and robust social dialogue. Without these enablers, lifelong learning risks becoming a rhetorical claim rather than a transformative force.XIXI Executive summary Mapping the state of lifelong learning worldwide The state of lifelong learning reveals progress but general gaps in access persist, especially in the world of work. Opportunities to learn throughout life remain uneven, shaped by country income levels, institutional capacity and the population group concerned. High-income countries tend to invest more and achieve better educational and labour market outcomes, while many lowand middle-income countries face persistent chall