OIT - The State of Social Justice 2025

The state of social justice A work in progress ILO Flagship Report 2025The state of social justice A work in progress 2025 International Labour Office • Geneva© International Labour Organization 2025. First published 2025. Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International. See: creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0 . The user is allowed to reuse, share (copy and redistribute), adapt (remix, transform and build upon the original work) as detailed in the licence. The user must clearly credit the ILO as the source of the material and indicate if changes were made to the original content. Use of the emblem, name and logo of the ILO is not permitted in connection with translations, adaptations or other derivative works. Attribution – The user must indicate if changes were made and must cite the work as follows: International Labour Organization, The state of social justice: A work in progress, Geneva: International Labour Office, 2025. © ILO. Translations – In case of a translation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is a translation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This translation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should not be considered an official ILO translation. The ILO disclaims all responsibility for its content and accuracy. Responsibility rests solely with the author(s) of the translation. Adaptations – In case of an adaptation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This adaptation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should not be considered an official ILO adaptation. The ILO disclaims all responsibility for its content and accuracy. Responsibility rests solely with the author(s) of the adaptation. Third-party materials – This Creative Commons licence does not apply to non-ILO copyright materials included in this publication. If the material is attributed to a third party, the user of such material is solely responsible for clearing the rights with the rights

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ISBN: 9789220410523 (print); 9789220410530 (web PDF) DOI: https://doi.org/10.54394/ASWD9537 social justice / human rights / workers’ rights / equal rights / just transition / income distribution

05.03.3 ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data Also available in French: L’état de la justice sociale: un processus en évolution, ISBN 9789220410547 (print), 9789220410554 (web PDF); and in Spanish: La situación de la justicia social: Progresos en curso, ISBN 9789220410561 (print), 9789220410578 (web PDF) The designations employed in ILO publications and databases, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the ILO concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. See: www. ilo.org/disclaimer. The opinions and views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the opinions, views or policies of the ILO. Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the ILO, and any failure

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Code: DESIGN/PPM/PMSERVI Social justice is the cornerstone of peaceful, inclusive and sustainable societies. It is at the heart of the ILO’s mandate and part of the essential interdependence recognized in the Charter of the United Nations. And there has been meaningful, measurable progress. In the 30 years since the landmark 1995 Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development, poverty and child labour have fallen and school completion rates have risen by double digits. For the first time in recorded history, since 2023 over 50 per cent of the world has been covered by some social protection scheme.

For millions around the world, however, the promise of fair treatment, decent work and equal opportunity remains elusive. Persistent inequalities, poverty and instability still confront us – calling urgently for renewed vision and collective action. The Second World Summit for Social Development, to be held in Doha, Qatar, in November 2025, offers a pivotal platform to revitalize global commitments to social justice. Amid ongoing challenges posed by climate change, technological transformation and demographic shifts, this summit offers a distinct opportunity to forge consensus and accelerate progress towards a more just future. At this critical juncture, the ILO offers this contribution to ongoing initiatives to deepen the understanding of social justice and work to achieve it. This report both maps the current state of social justice and highlights the challenges the global community must confront. It synthesizes fresh research and policy perspectives from across regions and sectors, spotlighting key areas where multilateral cooperation is particularly urgent.

understanding of social justice and work to achieve it. This report both maps the current state of social justice and highlights the challenges the global community must confront. It synthesizes fresh research and policy perspectives from across regions and sectors, spotlighting key areas where multilateral cooperation is particularly urgent. The data are clear – incremental reforms will not suffice. We need bold, coordinated action, anchored in human rights, equal access to opportunities, fair distribution and fair transitions. As world leaders, civil society and international institutions prepare to convene in Doha, and in the decades that will follow, this report seeks both to inform and inspire. It offers pathways to reinvigorate the pursuit of social justice, to leave no one behind. In doing so, the ILO reaffirms its unwavering commitment to advancing social justice worldwide – and invites all stakeholders to be part of this transformative journey. Gilbert F. Houngbo ILO Director-GeneralIII Foreword I Abbreviations X Acknowledgements XI X Executive summary XIII X Introduction 1 X 1. Fundamental human rights and capabilities: Laying the foundations for social justice 11 1.1. Realizing human rights at work by enhancing human capabilities 12 1.2. Freedom of expression 15 1.3. Fundamental principles and rights at work 17 1.3.1. Freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining 17 1.3.2. Child labour 21 1.3.3. Forced labour 24 1.3.4. Non-discrimination and equal remuneration 27 1.3.5. Right to safe and healthy working conditions 29 1.4. Rights to work, to just and favourable conditions of work and to social security 34 1.4.1. Right to work 34 1.4.2. Right to just and favourable conditions of work: Labour protection 36 1.4.3. Right to social security 38 1.5. Conclusion 40 References 41 X 2. Equal access to opportunities: Overcoming barriers 45

1.4.1. Right to work 34 1.4.2. Right to just and favourable conditions of work: Labour protection 36 1.4.3. Right to social security 38 1.5. Conclusion 40 References 41 X 2. Equal access to opportunities: Overcoming barriers 45 2.1. Opportunities in the world of work: How we have fared 47 2.1.1. Continued prominence of informality 47IV The state of social justice: A work in progress 2.1.2. Trends in informality by sex and income 49 2.1.3. Unemployment and labour underutilization 53 2.1.4. Women’s employment and barriers to participation in the labour market 55 2.1.5. Beyond the unemployment rate: The challenge of young people not in employment, education or training 57 2.1.6. Trends in education and skills development 59 2.1.7. Sustainable enterprise development and job creation 61 2.2. Overcoming barriers: The need for comprehensive policy responses 63 2.2.1. Pro-employment macroeconomic policies 64 2.2.2. Supporting structural transformation through sectoral policies 65 2.2.3. Promoting sustainable enterprises 66 2.2.4. Skills development and lifelong learning 67 2.2.5. Increasing access to fair opportunities through active labour market policies 69 2.3. Conclusion 71 References 72 X 3. Fair distribution: Strengthening institutions for fairness 79 3.1. Distribution of income and wealth 81 3.1.1. Labour productivity and economic convergence: Inequality between countries 83 3.1.2. Top income and wealth shares 85 3.1.3. Poverty, working poverty and hunger 87

3.2. Distribution of wages and labour earnings 90 3.2.1. Labour share of national income 91 3.2.2. Distribution of labour income 92 3.2.3. Earnings and wage gaps 94 3.3. Policies for a fair distribution of labour earnings 97 3.3.1. Minimum and living wages 97 3.3.2. Unionization and collective bargaining 99 3.4. Redistribution: Social security, taxation and fiscal space 101 3.5. Conclusion 107 References 109VV X 4. Fair transitions: Apply, adapt and amplify institutions for social justice 115 4.1. The environmental transition 117 4.1.1. Heat stress 117 4.1.2. Inequality of impact 119 4.1.3. Job creation and destruction 120 4.1.4. The just transition: Policy responses 121 4.1.5. Decent work in nationally determined contributions 122 4.2. The digital transition 122 4.3. The demographic transition 128 4.3.1. Falling labour forces 129 4.3.2. Increased old-age dependency 130 4.3.3. Older workers 135 4.4. Conclusion: Applying, adapting and amplifying labour institutions to manage the three societal transitions 137 4.4.1. Applying existing labour institutions 137 4.4.2. Adapting labour institutions to the specific challenges of the societal transitions 138 4.4.3. Amplifying labour institutions to encompass the policy domains of the three transitions 139 References 141

X Conclusion: The way forward 145

List of boxes 2.1. 17 conditions for an enabling environment for sustainable enterprises 66 3.1. Public perceptions of inequality 81 4.1. Guidelines for a Just Transition towards Environmentally Sustainable Economies and Societies for All 121 ContentsVI The state of social justice: A work in progress List of figures ES1. Combined labour underutilization measure (LU4) by country income group, 2005–22 (percentage) XVI

4.1. Guidelines for a Just Transition towards Environmentally Sustainable Economies and Societies for All 121 ContentsVI The state of social justice: A work in progress List of figures ES1. Combined labour underutilization measure (LU4) by country income group, 2005–22 (percentage) XVI ES2. Global prime-age labour force participation rate by sex and household type, 2023 (percentage) XVII ES3. Completion rates by education level and sex, 2000–23 (percentage) XVII ES4. Global monetary poverty rates according to international poverty lines, 1990–2023 (percentage) XIX ES5. Labour share of national income by country income group, 2004–25 (percentage) XIX ES6. Effective social security coverage by population group, 2015 and 2023 (percentage) XX ES7. Inequality reduction due to redistribution by country income group (percentage) XXI I1. People who express trust, by institution, 1984–2022 survey waves (percentage) 5 I2. Preference for equality and belief that hard work pays, 1983–2020 6 1.1. Freedom of expression indicators, 1992–2023 16 1.2. Ratification of the Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87), and the Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98), 2025 18 1.3. Share of countries where the right to join a trade union or professional association is in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 19 1.4. Share of countries where the right to collective bargaining is in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 20 1.5. Compliance with freedom of association and collective bargaining rights score by region, 2015–23 21 1.6. Compliance with freedom of association and collective bargaining rights score by country income group, 2015–23 21 1.7. Ratification of the Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138), and the Worst

by region, 2015–23 21 1.6. Compliance with freedom of association and collective bargaining rights score by country income group, 2015–23 21 1.7. Ratification of the Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138), and the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182), 2025 22 1.8. Share of countries where limits to the employment of children are in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 23 1.9. Global estimates of child labour rates, 1995–2024 (percentage) 23 1.10. Child labour rates in selected areas, 2008–24 (percentage) 24 1.11. Ratification of the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), the Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, and the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105), 2025 25 1.12. Share of countries where the prohibition of slavery is in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 26 1.13. Ratification of the Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100), and the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111), 2025 27 1.14. Share of countries where equality provisions are in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 28 1.15. Share of countries where equal pay provisions are in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 29 1.16. Ratification of the Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155), and the Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 2006 (No. 187), 2025 30 1.17. Share of countries where the right to safe working conditions is in the

constitution, 2024 (percentage) 31 1.18. Number of global work-related deaths, 2000–19 (million) 32VIIVII 1.19. Global work-related death rate, 2000–19 (deaths per 100,000 workers) 32 1.20. Global work-related deaths as a share of total deaths, 2000–19 (percentage) 32 1.21. Global fatal and non-fatal occupational injury rate, 2000–19 (injuries per 100,000 workers) 33 1.22. Number of global fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries, 2000–19 33 1.23. Ratification of the Employment Policy Convention, 1964 (No. 122), 2025 35 1.24. Share of countries where the right to work is in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 36 1.25. Ratification of the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 (No. 1), and the Hours of Work (Commerce and Offices) Convention, 1930 (No. 30), 2025 37 1.26. Ratification of the Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952 (No. 102), 2025 39 1.27. Share of ILO Member States where social security provisions are in the constitution, 2024 (percentage) 39 2.1. Labour market outcomes of the working-age population, 2005–25 (million) 48 2.2. Labour market outcomes of the working-age population by country income group, 2025 (percentage) 48 2.3. Informality rate by sex and country income group, 2005–25 (percentage) 49 2.4. Informality rate of workers with basic and advanced educational levels by country income group, latest year (percentage) 50 2.5. Informality rate by schooling level and country income group, latest year (percentage) 50 2.6. Share of employment status by sex and country income group, 2023 (percentage) 51 2.7. Distribution of employment by sector, 2003–23 (percentage) 52

2.5. Informality rate by schooling level and country income group, latest year (percentage) 50 2.6. Share of employment status by sex and country income group, 2023 (percentage) 51 2.7. Distribution of employment by sector, 2003–23 (percentage) 52 2.8. Unemployment rate by age and country income group, 2005–25 (percentage) 53 2.9. Labour underutilization rate by sex, 2005–23 and 2005–24 (percentage) 54 2.10. Combined labour underutilization measure (LU4) by country income group, 2005–22 (percentage) 55 2.11. Global estimates of the labour force participation rate for women and the gender gap in participation rates (aged 15 and over), 2005–25 56 2.12. Global prime-age labour force participation rate by sex and household type, 2023 (percentage) 57 2.13. Share of young people (aged 15–24) not in employment, education or training by country income group, 2005–25 (percentage) 58 2.14. Share of young people (aged 15–24) not in employment, education or training by sex and country income group, 2025 (percentage) 58 2.15. Completion rates by education level and sex, 2000–23 (percentage) 59 2.16. Share of students aged 15 achieving minimum proficiency in mathematics and reading, 2000–22 (percentage) 60 2.17. Gross enrolment ratio for tertiary education by country income group, 1995–2023 (percentage) 61 2.18. Share of enterprises in the European Union using at least one AI technology, 2023 and 2024 (percentage) 63 3.1. Global income inequality as measured by the Theil index for total, between countries and within countries, 1929–2018 82 3.2. Annual output per worker by country income group, 1991–2025 (US dollars) 83

2023 and 2024 (percentage) 63 3.1. Global income inequality as measured by the Theil index for total, between countries and within countries, 1929–2018 82 3.2. Annual output per worker by country income group, 1991–2025 (US dollars) 83 3.3. Annual output per worker index, 1991–2025 (1995 = 100) 84 3.4. Inequality of labour productivity between countries as measured by the Theil index, 1985–2023 84 ContentsVIII The state of social justice: A work in progress 3.5. Global share of income and wealth held by the top percentiles, 1980–2022 (percentage) 85 3.6. Share of income held by the top 10 per cent within each region, 1980–2022 (percentage) 86 3.7. Global monetary poverty rates according to international poverty lines, 1990–2023 (percentage) 88 3.8. Incidence of working poverty by country income group, 2000–24 (percentage) 89 3.9. Prevalence of stunting among children under five, 1990–2024 (percentage) 90 3.10. Share of wages and labour of national income, 1990–2025 (percentage) 91 3.11. Labour share of national income by country income group, 2004–25 (percentage) 92 3.12. Average Gini inequality measures (mean weighted by population), measured and modelled, 2004–20 93 3.13. Change in the Gini coefficient (labour income) from 2004 to 2020 as a function of GDP per capita 93 3.14. Employment-weighted earnings ratio between employed men and women by country income group, 2004–25 (percentage) 95 3.15. Pay (employment-weighted) for workers with disabilities as a share of the pay of men without disabilities, 2007–22 (percentage) 97 3.16. Average real minimum wages (employment-weighted) by country income

by country income group, 2004–25 (percentage) 95 3.15. Pay (employment-weighted) for workers with disabilities as a share of the pay of men without disabilities, 2007–22 (percentage) 97 3.16. Average real minimum wages (employment-weighted) by country income group, 1995–2022 (US dollars) 98 3.17. Share of countries where development of social security schemes is anchored in national legislation by policy area, 1900–2023 (percentage) 102 3.18. Effective social security coverage by population group, 2015 and 2023 (percentage) 102 3.19. Effective social security coverage by population and country income group, 2015 and 2023 (percentage) 103 3.20. Inequality reduction due to redistribution by country income group (percentage) 104 3.21. Tax collection and social security transfer expenditure as a share of GDP by country income group (percentage) 105 3.22. Tax collection as a share of GDP by country income group, 1995–2021 (percentage) 106 3.23. Reduction in inequality as a function of the relative share of four types of tax in total tax collection, latest year (percentage) 107 4.1. Share of total working hours and GDP lost due to heat stress, 1995 and 2030 (percentage) 118 4.2. Cumulative count of legal provisions on adaptation measures by type and country income group, 1950–2023 118 4.3. Share of total relative losses, carbon emissions and capacity to finance by earner percentile, 2024 (percentage) 119 4.4. Global number of jobs in renewable energy, 2012–23 (million) 120 4.5. Share of workers who work from home, selected countries, 2019 and 2023 (percentage) 124 4.6. Global estimates of the share of occupations potentially exposed to generative artificial intelligence by sex, 2025 (percentage) 126 4.7. Share of jobs with and without computer use at work, selected countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (percentage) 127

(percentage) 124 4.6. Global estimates of the share of occupations potentially exposed to generative artificial intelligence by sex, 2025 (percentage) 126 4.7. Share of jobs with and without computer use at work, selected countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (percentage) 127 4.8. Total fertility rates by country income group, 1990–2030 129 4.9. Labour force by country income group, 1990–2050 (million) 130 4.10. Dependency ratio by type and country income group, 1990–2050 (percentage) 131IXIX Contents 4.11. Share of the labour force by age category and country income group, 1990–2050 (percentage) 135 4.12. Age-disability profiles, selected countries (percentage) 136 4.13. Applying, adapting and amplifying labour institutions to manage the three societal transitions 137 List of tables 1.1. Global estimates of forced labour, 2016 and 2021 (million and percentage) 26 3.1. Wage gap between men and women by country income group, latest available year (percentage) 95 3.2. Mean and median migrant pay gaps, raw and factor-weighted, hourly and monthly, by country income group (percentage) 96 4.1. Share of nationally determined contribution plans referring to just transitions, employment and decent work by country income group (percentage) 122 4.2. Statutory retirement age for men and women, latest available year (number of countries) 132 4.3. Government announcements of pension reforms, 2013–23 133 4.4. Public and family obligations in law to care for the elderly by country income group, latest year (number of countries) 134 4.5. Legal provision for long-term care leave by country income group, 2021

(number of countries) 134X Abbreviations AI artificial intelligence ALMP active labour market policy CEACR Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations CEQ Commitment to Equity ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ITU International Telecommunication Union MSME micro, small and medium-sized enterprise NDC nationally determined contribution NEET not in employment, education or training OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OSH occupational safety and health PPP purchasing power parity SDG Sustainable Development Goal UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNU-WIDER United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research The state of social justice: A work in progressXI Acknowledgements This report was prepared by the Research Department of the ILO, under the overall responsibility of Celeste Drake, Deputy Director-General, as well as Caroline Fredrickson, Department Director, and Richard Samans, the previous Department Director. It was envisioned by the ILO DirectorGeneral as a first step towards systematically measuring social justice in the world. The report was coordinated by Sergei Soares and written by Tim De Meyer, Rosina Gammarano, N.S. Ghosheh, Silvia Sgroi, Sergei Soares and Andrés Vega Aybar, together with contributions from other ILO colleagues in Geneva and field offices. We acknowledge the Department of Statistics for its important contribution to the report, in particular the provision of quantitative content through the definition of relevant indicators, the availability of ILOSTAT and the intensive processing of microdata, and ILO modelled estimates presented in the report. The overall activities from the Department of Statistics were guided by Rafael Diez de Medina, ILO Chief Statistician and Department Director. Special thanks to the Data Production Unit of the Department: Steven Kapsos, Roger Gomis and Yves Perardel; and to the Statistical Standards and Methods Unit: Kieran Walsh and Rosina Gammarano. The online data appendix would not have been possible without the contribution of Weichen Lei (Knowledge

Production Unit of the Department: Steven Kapsos, Roger Gomis and Yves Perardel; and to the Statistical Standards and Methods Unit: Kieran Walsh and Rosina Gammarano. The online data appendix would not have been possible without the contribution of Weichen Lei (Knowledge Management Solutions Unit). Elisa Benes, Balint Nafradi and Dora Sari (Rights, Migration and Skills Statistics Unit) provided insightful contributions to labour rights and industrial relations, and occupational safety and health dimensions. Contributions to different parts of the report were provided by ILO specialists of the Deputy Director-General Secretariat and the Research Department, including Uma Amara, Sevane Ananian, Janine Berg, Marva Corley-Coulibaly, Isaure Delaporte, Franz Ebert, Ekkehard Ernst, Veronica Escudero, Pawel Gmyrek, Susan Hayter, Dorothea Hoehtker, Tahmina Karimova, Stefan Kühn, Hannah Liepmann, Nicolas Maitre, Fabiola Mieres, Naren Prasad, Nikolai Rogovsky, Catherine Saget and Sher Verick. Contributions were also provided by ILO specialists from other technical departments, including Laura Addati, Samuel Asfaha, Christina Behrendt, Patrick Belser, Adelle Blackett, Florence Bonnet, Anam Butt, Paloma Carrillo, Umberto Cattaneo, Sana de Courcelles, Patrick Daru, Sukti Dasgupta, Giulia De Lazzari, Guillaume Delautre, Moustapha Kamal Gueye, Marek Harsdorff, Phu Huynh, Chidi King, Sangheon Lee, Pedro Moreno da Fonseca, Michael Mwasikakata, Mansour Omeira, Celine Peyron Bista, Emanuela Pozzan, Shahra Razavi, Camilla Roman, Helmut Schwarzer, Manuela Tomei, Esteban Tromel, Corinne Vargha, Michael Watt and Ding Xu. In addition, the report owes a debt to numerous other colleagues whose contributions appeared only as anonymous edits to earlier versions.

Tomei, Esteban Tromel, Corinne Vargha, Michael Watt and Ding Xu. In addition, the report owes a debt to numerous other colleagues whose contributions appeared only as anonymous edits to earlier versions. Contributions were similarly received from Andrew Allieu (Abidjan), Tulio Cravo (Lima) and Ken Chamuva Shawa (Bangkok). Administrative support was provided by Sylvia Cant and PierreAlain Proust. Judy Rafferty coordinated the publication production, and the ILO Publications Production and Publishing Management Unit (PRODOC) coordinated the anonymous peer review of the report and provided production project management, graphic design including the cover, copy-editing, typesetting and proofreading. Thank you to Redha Ameur, Lea Bou Khater, Zeina Mezher and Fabiola Mieres for their help in identifying researchers. Thank you to Carolina Botelho, Wiseman Chijere Chirwa, Slavka Karakusheva, Rima Majed, Gabriella Sanchez and Jo Nicola Yong Mie for wonderful research on perceptions of social justice.XIII Thirty years ago, delegates from 186 countries – at the time, the largest gathering of world leaders ever assembled – convened in Copenhagen for the first World Summit for Social Development. The 1995 summit recognized the centrality of full and productive employment for social development, noting how it was interrelated with poverty eradication and social inclusion. It aimed to establish a people-centred framework for social development in a world where basic needs were still not being met, where poverty persisted and where unemployment and social exclusion were rising. Ahead of the Second World Summit for Social Development, which will take place in Qatar in November, the ILO has embarked on its first ever attempt to assess the state of social justice in the world and reflect on the progress made over the last 30 years. Social justice means that “all human beings, irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and equal opportunity”.1 In addition to being a moral imperative, social justice also

human beings, irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and equal opportunity”.1 In addition to being a moral imperative, social justice also enables societies and economies to function more cohesively and effectively. It helps build trust, enhances legitimacy