OIT - The untapped potential of disadvantaged young people for apprenticeships in skilled trades

X The untapped potential of disadvantaged young people for apprenticeships in skilled trades Author / Patrizia Hasler

April / 2025 ILO Working Paper 137© International Labour Organization 2025 Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International. See: https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The user is allowed to reuse, share (copy and redistribute), adapt (remix, transform and build upon the original work) as detailed in the licence. The user must clearly credit the ILO as the source of the material and indicate if changes were made to the original content. Use of the emblem, name and logo of the ILO is not permitted in connection with translations, adaptations or other derivative works. Attribution – The user must indicate if changes were made and must cite the work as follows: Hasler, P . The untapped potential of disadvantaged young people for apprenticeships in skilled trades. ILO Working Paper 137. Geneva: International Labour Office, 2025.© ILO. Translations – In case of a translation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is a translation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This translation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should not be considered an official ILO translation. The ILO disclaims all responsibility for its content and accuracy. Responsibility rests solely with the author(s) of the translation. Adaptations – In case of an adaptation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of a copyrighted work of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This adaptation has not been prepared, reviewed or endorsed by the ILO and should not be considered an official ILO adaptation. The ILO disclaims all responsibility for its content and accuracy. Responsibility rests solely with the author(s) of the adaptation. Third-party materials – This Creative Commons licence does not apply to non-ILO copyright materials included in this publication. If the material is attributed to a third party, the user of such material is solely responsible for clearing the rights with the rights holder and for any claims of infringement. Any dispute arising under this licence that cannot be settled amicably shall be referred to arbitration in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL). The parties shall be bound by any arbitration award rendered as a result of such arbitration as the final adjudication of such a dispute. For details on rights and licensing, contact: rights@ilo.org. For details on ILO publications and digital products, visit: www.ilo.org/publns.

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Authorization for publication: Akiko Sakamoto, Senior Skills and Employability Specialist ILO Working Papers can be found at: www.ilo.org/global/publications/working-papers Suggested citation: Hasler, P . 2025. The untapped potential of disadvantaged young people for apprenticeships in skilled trades, ILO Working Paper 137 (Geneva, ILO). https://doi.org/10.54394/PQRO879701 ILO Working Paper 137

Abstract Skills development through quality apprenticeships can help young people make a successful transition from school to adulthood with sustainable, satisfying and rewarding employment. But even in Switzerland, which has a very strong standardized apprenticeship system with a good reputation, there is still an average dropout rate of about 20 per cent over the last two decades. This paper seeks to identify the influencing factors of quality apprenticeships and elaborates possible reasons why young people in low-reputation apprenticeships drop out more often than those in popular professions. Two studies conducted by the author with apprentices in the vocational fields of construction and media design serve as the scientific basis. The first study – in the field of media design, a popular field for vocational training – found that the pedagogical and didactic skills of the trainer, in particular the positive handling of errors, trust, honest and direct feedback, as well as the variability of tasks and the relationship with work colleagues, have a significant influence on training satisfaction. It was also found that the important influencing factors of competence growth in the workplace are not the same as those that significantly influence the grades at school The second study – in the field of construction, a vocational training track with low reputation – compared apprentices who terminated their apprenticeship contract with a control group of

satisfaction. It was also found that the important influencing factors of competence growth in the workplace are not the same as those that significantly influence the grades at school The second study – in the field of construction, a vocational training track with low reputation – compared apprentices who terminated their apprenticeship contract with a control group of non-terminators in order to determine the factors influencing the probability of apprenticeship contract termination. Wrong career choice and unfavourable working and training conditions significantly increase the probability of aborting the apprenticeship. This paper goes one step further and combines the results of the two studies with two sociological theoretical concepts, the concept of “social reproduction” and the concept of different “life worlds” taken from SINUS Institute studies; these sociological concepts explain why young people from families with a low socio-economic background belong to the target group of disadvantaged young people but match very well with skilled trades when their specific needs are addressed. For this reason, the author concludes by providing concrete recommendations for policymakers, employers’ associations and trade unions to leverage the untapped potential of disadvantaged young people in order to address the shortage of skilled workers in skilled trades. Social justice demands long-term investment in this disadvantaged group of young people as they deserve not to be left behind. Their human capital is valuable for economic growth as well as for societal and individual prosperity. About the authors Patrizia Hasler is an independent international senior consultant specialising in the field of vocational education and training. Until 2024, she held the position of Director at the Zurich Technical College. Previously she was National Head of Continuing Education and was a member of the Executive Board of the Swiss Federal University for Vocational Education and Training (SFUVET). From 2013 to 2016, she was engaged in the field of Education Policy at the Swiss Association of Master Builders. Furthermore, she holds multiple qualifications in teaching and has been a teacher for over two decades at various academic levels and in a variety of roles, including one02 ILO Working Paper 137 teaching assignment in Harare, Zimbabwe. Additionally, she has considerable experience in reof Master Builders. Furthermore, she holds multiple qualifications in teaching and has been a teacher for over two decades at various academic levels and in a variety of roles, including one02 ILO Working Paper 137 teaching assignment in Harare, Zimbabwe. Additionally, she has considerable experience in research within the fields of vocational education, inclusion, work-based learning, action competence orientation, vocational socialisation and employability. She has published in these areas and has delivered numerous presentations at international conferences on a variety of topics. Throughout her diverse roles in VET, including director, policymaker, researcher, senior advisor, career developer and teacher, Patrizia Hasler has demonstrated a unique ability to integrate policy, research and practice in the development of VET. She is particularly committed to harnessing the untapped potential of young people. She holds a PhD and an MSC in TVET.03 ILO Working Paper 137 Abstract 01 About the authors 01 X Introduction 06 X 1 Quality apprenticeships 07 Individual characteristics 08

Task: Job design 08

Trainer 08 Team 09 Curriculum 09 Findings 09 Training satisfaction 09 Self-assessment of own overall performance at work 10 Assessment of domain-specific skills 10 Work-related attitudes 11 School grades 11 X 2 Habitus as an expression of cultural and social capital 14 Cultural capital 14 Social capital 15 X 3 SINUS Meta Milieus model 17 X 4 Matching of milieus and skilled trades: 21 Untapped potential of human capita 21 X 5. Conclusions and recommendations 23 Recommendations 23 References 26 Table of contents04 ILO Working Paper 137 List of Figures Figure 1. Determinants of quality of work-based learning 07 Figure 2. SINUS Meta Milieus model for established markets 17 Figure 3. SINUS Meta Milieus model for emerging markets 1905 ILO Working Paper 137 List of Tables

List of Figures Figure 1. Determinants of quality of work-based learning 07 Figure 2. SINUS Meta Milieus model for established markets 17 Figure 3. SINUS Meta Milieus model for emerging markets 1905 ILO Working Paper 137 List of Tables Table 1. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable training satisfaction 10 Table 2. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable overall performance at work 10 Table 3. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable domain-specific skills 11 Table 4. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable attitudes 11 Table 5. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable school grades 11 Table 6: Optimized model for the prediction of apprenticeship contract terminations 12 Table 7. Re-entry into a certifying apprenticeship after dropout, in months 13 Table 8. Descriptions of SINUS Meta Milieus of established markets 18 Table 9. Descriptions of SINUS Meta Milieus of emerging markets 1906 ILO Working Paper 137 X Introduction Switzerland has had an average apprenticeship contract termination rate of 20 per cent for decades, especially in apprenticeships that attract young people from families with a low socio-economic background. Apprenticeships in the fields of hairdressing and beauty care, hospitality, electricity and construction have the highest dropout rates. This paper seeks to identify the reasons why this vulnerable and socially disadvantaged group of young people needs long-term career guidance or coaching in order not to drop out without any re-entrance. They risk being left behind as they often lack self-efficacy, self-esteem and a positive attitude towards life. Society must make an effort to help them by providing quality apprenticeships in order for them to be integrated into the workforce and keep them from being trapped in poverty. The workplace has the potential to be a perfect learning environment for this target group. However, working and the continuous execution of specific tasks does not guarantee that learning and the development of competences will occur or that an apprentice will become an expert

trapped in poverty. The workplace has the potential to be a perfect learning environment for this target group. However, working and the continuous execution of specific tasks does not guarantee that learning and the development of competences will occur or that an apprentice will become an expert (Semmer, Barr and Steding 2000). The mere unreflected execution of a task can have some training effect but certainly has nothing in common with a constructive learning process. This paper adopts a multilayer approach, combining different methodologies, in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the needs of disadvantaged young people. Two studies carried out by the author will serve as a basis for identifying the factors influencing quality apprenticeship; one study explored the training satisfaction of apprentices in the media design sector, in particular the crucial role of the in-company trainer (Hasler, unpublished; Nägele and Hasler2011). The second study was carried out in the construction field and examined the reasons for the high dropout rate of apprentices (Hasler 2016). This paper goes one step further and combines the results of the two studies with two sociological theoretical concepts in order to derive the needs of the specific target group of vulnerable young people. In section 1, the meaning of quality apprenticeships is explained by the determinants of workbased learning. In section 2, the focus is on the concept of social reproduction developed by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (Bourdieu 1983). This concept helps to understand inequity of performance at school and how this inequity gets bigger with each transition beginning with the first transition from school to apprenticeship or studies and continuing during the second transition into the labour market. In section 3, this concept is combined with the SINUS Meta Milieus model developed by the SINUS Institute in Germany (SINUS Institute 2024). This model applies the theory of Bourdieu that each human being has inherited values, attitudes and experiences derived from family members, which means that they do not think and act on the basis of inner freedom but rather on the basis of the social group to which they belong. These socioapplies the theory of Bourdieu that each human being has inherited values, attitudes and experiences derived from family members, which means that they do not think and act on the basis of inner freedom but rather on the basis of the social group to which they belong. These sociological findings can be applied to the world of work, especially to apprenticeships in the skilled trades. In section 4, sections 1–3 are synthesized to combine quality apprenticeships and social reproduction with the SINUS Meta Milieus model. This paper concludes by providing recommendations in section 5 to enable policymakers, employers’ associations and trade unions to attract and retain disadvantaged young people in the rapidly changing labour market.07 ILO Working Paper 137 X 1 Quality apprenticeships

Before talking about quality apprenticeships, it is essential to define first of all the term “apprenticeship”. The Quality Apprenticeships Recommendation, 2023 (No. 208) provides that “the term ‘apprenticeship’ should be understood as a form of education and training that is governed by an apprenticeship agreement, that enables an apprentice to acquire the competencies required to work in an occupation through structured and remunerated or otherwise financially compensated training consisting of both on-the-job and off-the-job learning and that leads to a recognized qualification”. The term “dual apprenticeship” is often used to indicate that learning should take place at a training provider for the theoretical part and in the workplace for the transfer of theories to specific tasks. However, participation at work is not sufficient for optimal learning and the development of vocational competences. Learning is seen as an active process, involving the individual, task-related characteristics, trainer competences, team constellation and the curriculum (see fig. 1). Central to work-based learning are also colleagues in the team. Formal, non-formal and informal learning at the workplace is fostered by feedback and knowledge acquisition, appropriate communication tools, coaching and information acquisition (Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs 2009). X Figure 1. Determinants of quality of work-based learning

Source: Author.

ing at the workplace is fostered by feedback and knowledge acquisition, appropriate communication tools, coaching and information acquisition (Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs 2009). X Figure 1. Determinants of quality of work-based learning

Source: Author.

Based on a study of apprentices in the field of media design and media production (Hasler, unpublished), it can be seen that overall satisfaction and satisfaction with the trainer have a high significant correlation (r= .64). As measurements for quality apprenticeships, the author took training satisfaction, satisfaction with the training skills of the trainer, self-assessment of the acquired skills and school grades into account. Several regression analyses were run on the individual, task, trainer and team-related factors to predict the above-mentioned quality apprenticeships features. The determinants of the concept of workplace learning (see fig. 1) are explained below, after which the results are reviewed.08 ILO Working Paper 137 Individual characteristics Personality variables have an impact on learning and academic achievement (Bidjerano and Dai 2007). Individuals with an overall positive self-evaluation have better performance, better careers, are more satisfied and cope better in stressful situations (Judge 2009). Learning is an active process that depends on individual characteristics such as self-esteem, self-efficacy or persistence. Furthermore, the concept of competence in vocational and educational training has moved from a behaviour-oriented skills approach to a competence-based, output-oriented approach during the last decade. Knowledge, skills and attitudes are seen to be developed at the same time, by asking for integrated approaches in instruction (Mulder et al. 2009). The learner thereby becomes the central agent in the learning process. Self-efficacy is the belief that a person will be able to initiate and successfully perform the intended behaviour. Self-efficacy has been shown to be a predictor of interests, motivation and goals (Lent et al. 2008) and is positively related to the goal level that determines performance

Self-efficacy is the belief that a person will be able to initiate and successfully perform the intended behaviour. Self-efficacy has been shown to be a predictor of interests, motivation and goals (Lent et al. 2008) and is positively related to the goal level that determines performance (Phillips and Gully 1997).Positive attitudes towards life (Grob et al. 1991) is the cognitive evaluation of general well-being. Thus, a positive attitude towards the future course of life fosters the learning processes. Self-esteem is an evaluation in which individuals express approval or disapproval of themselves, leading to a judgment of their personal worth (Rosenberg et al. 1995). Low self-esteem is negatively correlated with well-being in adolescents (Karatzias et al. 2006). Persistence is a personality trait and is discussed as a predictor of both dropout rates (Barefoot 2004) and performance (Locke and Latham 1990) as it helps individuals to focus their attention on task requirements. Flexibility is the ability to adapt easily to new demands. Cognitive and behavioural flexibility is expressed in doing something new or differently without hesitation and is also an expression of curiosity and internal motivation.

Task: Job design Job design shows strong effects on learning processes (Lantz and Brav 2007). A task must contain preparatory, executive and evaluative components (task identity), scope of action (autonomy), complexity and problem-solving elements (challenging work) or variability in order to allow for learning and the development of competences at the workplace (Hacker 2005). An important element of the learning process is direct feedback from task execution, combined with feedback from the trainer. Positive and negative feedback influence the learning process; in particular, errors can foster learning processes (Ohlsson 1996) Trainer The role of trainers is manifold: they are an instructor, coach, guide, mentor, confidant and boss.

It is also their duty to introduce the apprentice into the workplace, leading them from a peripheral participation to becoming a full member of the community (Lave and Wenger 1991).

Trainer The role of trainers is manifold: they are an instructor, coach, guide, mentor, confidant and boss. It is also their duty to introduce the apprentice into the workplace, leading them from a peripheral participation to becoming a full member of the community (Lave and Wenger 1991). From the first day of the apprenticeship, the apprentice participates in the production process. Learning and the development of skills depend partly on the tasks available. On the other hand, the trainer is obliged to implement the curriculum. The trainer must guarantee the fulfillment of the curriculum so that it entails the necessity to monitor the learning process of the apprentice, thereby ensuring that professional competence is developed. A good trainer can balance the needs of the company and those of the apprentice. It is not only vocational competence but also the pedagogical ability, qualifications and organizational09 ILO Working Paper 137 aptitude, combined with the ability to teach young people, that makes a good trainer. A trainer should enable reflection by giving time and space to the apprentice. They should handle errors positively and make use of them to instruct and teach the apprentice. The trainer is also an expert in their vocation and is able to explain things using appropriate didactical methods. As the apprentice is part of the production process, it is also important for the trainer to have high task-related demands. As the apprentice becomes part of the community of work, trust becomes an important issue. The apprentice enters the company as a novice and it is a different place than school. The trainer becomes an important attachment figure. In most cases, it is an intergenerational connection, as the trainer is much older than the apprentice. It has been shown repeatedly that trust is an important element of any mentoring relationship (Rhodes et al. 2005). If there is no trust, working together becomes difficult. It is even more difficult to be in a learning relationship if there is no trust. Team Colleagues at work can be a valuable resource; they give social support, knowledge and insight into how things are really done. The downside is social conflicts, exclusion or bullying. Colleagues

working together becomes difficult. It is even more difficult to be in a learning relationship if there is no trust. Team Colleagues at work can be a valuable resource; they give social support, knowledge and insight into how things are really done. The downside is social conflicts, exclusion or bullying. Colleagues at work are a system of reference to evaluate their own skills and attitudes. Apprentices observe a lot, help experts and model what they are instructed. Part of the apprenticeship is best described as learning from a model (Bandura 1977) that is delivered by colleagues at work. Curriculum In Switzerland, the curriculum assigns specific educational and training tasks to the three learning places (company, vocational school, cross-company courses) in initial vocational education and training. The learning objectives specified in the curriculum are binding for the company. Thus, the trainer uses the curriculum as a baseline or guideline for the development and evaluation of the apprentice’s competences. Findings Training satisfaction The findings (see table 1) show that the pedagogical competences of the trainer are closely related with the apprentices’ training satisfaction. Another important element is task variability, which is the possibility to carry out different tasks. Task variability and a well-equipped workplace that provides all the necessary material and information are associated with higher perceived overall training satisfaction and also has the positive effect of having good friends at work. A lack of documents and materials at the workplace is correlated with lower training satisfaction.10 ILO Working Paper 137 X Table 1. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable training satisfaction B SE B b Task: Variability .385 .050 .313 Task: Missing documents -.139 .046 -.117 Team: Good colleagues .140 .053 .099 Trainer: Pedagogical competences .845 .080 .439 Note: R2 = .494, p < .000, F(4, 375) = 93.664, N = 380; only statistically significant factors are shown.

Source: Author.

Self-assessment of own overall performance at work Task-related skills depend on self-efficacy, self-esteem, a positive attitude towards life and chalSource: Author. Self-assessment of own overall performance at work Task-related skills depend on self-efficacy, self-esteem, a positive attitude towards life and challenging work. Self-efficacy and self-esteem are independent predictors of task skills (see table 2). The negative effect of a positive attitude towards life is surprising, at first sight. Looking at the items of the scale, this positive attitude towards life may also express to some extent a satisfying behaviour: I am satisfied with my life; I am where I wanted to be and there is no need to go further or to achieve higher goals. X Table 2. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable overall performance at work B SE B b Individual: Self-esteem .254 .053 .294 Individual: Self-efficacy .311 .077 .235 Individual: Positive attitudes towards life -.130 .047 -.158 Task: Challenging work .107 .044 .122 Note: R2 = .151, p < .000, F(4, 356) = 17.004, N = 361; only statistically significant factors are shown.

Source: Author.

Assessment of domain-specific skills It was expected that variability, scope of action, autonomy, feedback and task identity (Hackman and Oldham 1975) would have a positive effect on skills, but based on the findings only variability is correlated with skills. This is probably due to the special situation of the apprenticeship and the role of the apprentice. The curriculum is well defined, so that the task characteristics seem to be less important than in an adult population. However, a high level of task variability combined with individual flexibility leads to better skills (see table 3). It was also found that apprentices in the third year of training report higher domain-specific skills than might be expected in an apprenticeship.11 ILO Working Paper 137

X Table 3. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable domain-specific skills B SE B b Apprenticeship year (second or third) .307 .049 .295 Individual: Flexibility .249 .070 .169 Task: Variability .178 .031 .278 Note: R2 = .190, p < .000, F(3, 368) = 29.996, N = 372; only statistically significant factors are shown.

Source: Author.

Work-related attitudes Work-related attitudes represent to some extent the traditional virtues of the workplace: accuracy, fidelity and reliability. The results show that these attitudes are significantly influenced by individual characteristics, such as persistence and self-efficacy (see table 4). Challenging work and direct feedback from the task have a positive effect as well. X Table 4. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable attitudes B SE B b Individual: Self-esteem .101 .028 .186 Individual: Persistence .135 .037 .183 Task: Challenging work .075 .027 .136 Task: Feedback .102 .025 .208 Note: R2 = .168, p < .000, F(4, 358) = 19.332, N = 363; only statistically significant factors are shown.

Source: Author.

School grades Social support and persistence have a positive effect on school grades (see table 5). Gender and the vocational track (media design versus media production) also have an effect. Females have higher school grades than males and the apprentices in media production have lower school grades. X Table 5. Regression analysis: Dependent-variable school grades B SE B b Vocational track (1=media design; 2=media production) -.032 .009 -.179 Individual: Persistence .024 .008 .140 Team: Social support .018 .009 .102

Note. R2 = .086, p < .000, F(3, 391) = 10.279, N = 396; only statistically significant factors are shown.; only statistically significant factors are shown.

Source: Author.

The finding that social support and persistence have a positive effect on school grades is in line with school-based studies that showing a positive effect of the social support system (such as parents) on grades (see, for example, Neuenschwander, Frey and Gasser 2007). However, the explained variance is rather low. This may be explained by the fact that the independent variables12 ILO Working Paper 137 describe the situation at the workplace, whereas the dependent variable measures the performance at school. Different competences seem to be developed at the workplace and at school. As an insight to all these regression analyses, it is striking that personality traits such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, a positive attitude towards life and persistence all have an impact on learning outcomes and success in life and career. The trainer can moderate the learning process by consciously developed pedagogical competences, such as task-specific requirements, especially variabilit