OIT - Women and the economy - 30 years after the Beijing Declaration

u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 1

Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration

u Beijing+30 places women’s rights and the role that women play in the economy centre stage. Progress towards equality has occurred over the past thirty years but has been modest and uneven. Crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic, have interrupted that progress.

u In 2024, 46.4 per cent of working-age women were employed, compared to 69.5 per cent of men. In over 30 years, the gender employment gap has narrowed by only 4 percentage points, with high-income and lowermiddle income countries exhibiting the largest reduction. At this pace of progress, achieving gender parity in employment rates globally will take over 190 years.

u Between 2004 and 2024, progress has been made in reducing gender inequalities in annual earnings per worker, across all country income groups, particularly in low-income countries. However, employed women globally still earn significantly less on average than men, work fewer paid hours, and are overrepresented in informal employment in lowand lower-middleincome countries. u Globally in 2024, women worked approximately 6 hours and 25 minutes less per week than men in paid employment. However, women spent 3.2 times more hours on unpaid care work than men. Excessive and unequal care responsibilities keep 708 million women outside the labour force globally.

u As of 2023, women hold just 30 per cent of managerial positions globally, a modest improvement over the past two decades. Low-income countries have demonstrated significant progress, with women's representation in management rising from 24.7 to 36.5 per cent.

u Women are 1.6 times more likely than men to experience sexual violence and harassment in the world of work, with young and migrant women being at greater risk.

u The Beijing Platform for Action remains a powerful

per cent.

u Women are 1.6 times more likely than men to experience sexual violence and harassment in the world of work, with young and migrant women being at greater risk.

u The Beijing Platform for Action remains a powerful force for championing women’s rights, including in the world of work. Beijing+30 serves as a reminder that, while the pursuit of gender equality remains an ongoing challenge, this pursuit is not just a response to inequality, it is also a powerful solution. Advancing equal opportunities and treatment in the world of work can drive economic development, enhance workplace productivity, and foster resilient societies. Key messagesu Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 2 Introduction In 1995, the UN’s Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing marked a historic commitment to advancing equality, development, and peace for women worldwide. Thirty years later, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA) remains the most comprehensive and influential framework for advancing women’s rights. Twelve critical areas1 and their related strategic objectives and actions outline the BPfA’s overarching commitments to women’s rights. For the ILO, the theme of "Women and the Economy" reflects the critical role its constituents continue to play in shaping key policy areas and achieving strategic objectives, drawing on the ILO’s extensive body of international labour standards. This critical area provides an in-depth analysis of the various forms of gender-based discrimination in the labour market and their root causes—challenges that remain highly relevant today. Since 1995, “Women and the economy” continues to guide ILO’s work on equal opportunities and treatment of men and women in the world of work, as reflected in the ILO Centenary Declaration for the Future of Work. The BPfA was groundbreaking in recognizing unpaid care work as an economic issue and highlighting its impact on women’s participation in the labour market. It identified how macroeconomic restructuring processes disproportionately affected women, leading to job losses

the ILO Centenary Declaration for the Future of Work. The BPfA was groundbreaking in recognizing unpaid care work as an economic issue and highlighting its impact on women’s participation in the labour market. It identified how macroeconomic restructuring processes disproportionately affected women, leading to job losses and pushing many into the informal economy. The BPfA also acknowledged that, due to limited bargaining power, women were often forced to accept low wages and poor working conditions. Moreover, its insights into the impact of violence and harassment on women in the world of work remain highly relevant. Thirty years on, many of the barriers and constraints identified by the Beijing signatories persist, underscoring the continued urgency of addressing these challenges. In Beijing, the ILO affirmed a powerful truth: “All Women are Working Women”. Since its foundation in 1919, the ILO has been a leading advocate for equal opportunities and treatment for all in the world of work, playing a crucial

1 The twelve critical areas are poverty, education and training, health, violence, armed conflict, economics, power and decision-making, institutional arrangements, human rights, media, environment, and the girl child. 2 Since 1995, there has been an increase in the number of countries that have formally committed to promoting gender equality in the world of work. role in setting international labour standards on topics such as equal pay for work of equal value, nondiscrimination in employment and occupation, maternity protection, workers with family responsibilities, and violence and harassment, among other key international labour standards. Most recently, the 2024 ILO Resolution concerning decent work and the care economy recognises that a well-functioning and robust care economy is central to human, social, economic and environmental well-being, and it is critical for achieving gender equality. Overall, during the past thirty years, countries’ commitment to promoting equal opportunities and treatment in the world of work has increased, as reflected in the growing number of countries ratifying and

to human, social, economic and environmental well-being, and it is critical for achieving gender equality. Overall, during the past thirty years, countries’ commitment to promoting equal opportunities and treatment in the world of work has increased, as reflected in the growing number of countries ratifying and implementing international labour standards.2 However, these commitments have not always translated into substantive equality and women’s outcomes in the world of work remain uneven and modest. Beijing+30 serves as a reminder that the pursuit of gender equality remains an ongoing challenge, further complicated by a rapidly evolving world of work. Multiple, overlapping crises - including conflict, debt distress, the cost-of-living crisis, and the COVID-19 pandemic - have deepened inequalities and heightened risks, making urgent action more critical than ever. At the same time, demographic, technological, and environmental transitions are reshaping the labour market, offering both challenges and opportunities for inclusive economic development and gender-responsive policies. This brief presents an updated and comprehensive statistical snapshot of the current situation of gender equality in the world of work 30 years after the BPfA. Utilising labour market indicators, primary and secondary data, and adopting a multi-dimensional perspective, this brief provides both historical trends as well as more recent insights into the evidence of gender (in)equality in the world of work. As the 2030 deadline for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) draws closer, strengthening this evidence-base is key to inform effective policy action for sustainable change and a world of work that works for all men and women, leaving no one behind. At that time, 126 Member States had ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention,1951 (No. 100), and 122 Member States had ratified the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111). As of 5 March 2025, we stand at 174 and 175 ratifications of these two fundamental Conventions, respectively. Since its adoption, the Violence

Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111). As of 5 March 2025, we stand at 174 and 175 ratifications of these two fundamental Conventions, respectively. Since its adoption, the Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No.190) has been ratified by 49 countries.u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 3 Persistent gender inequalities in the world of work Gender inequalities in the world of work remain a significant and persistent issue globally. These inequalities are deeply entrenched, and the result of multiple compounding disadvantages that women face in entering, remaining and progressing in employment and obtaining decent work. Gender inequalities in the world of work are reflected in differences in both employment opportunities and quality of employment. First, women face lower employment rates, reflecting persistent barriers to employment opportunities. Second, disparities persist even within the employed population. Women who are employed, either as wage workers or in self-employment, spend on average less time working for pay and are over-represented in lower-paying jobs, often with limited access to social protection. These compounded disadvantages translate into stark differences in the total amount of labour income that men and women earn: collectively in 2024, the labour income earned by all women worldwide amounted to barely over half of that earned by all men.3 While there has been some progress in closing gender gaps in labour income over the past two decades, these gains have been modest and uneven across regions and country income groups. Addressing gender inequalities in labour markets requires targeted actions to improve women’s access to and opportunities for employment, ensure equal pay for work of equal value, and dismantle structural barriers in and outside of labour markets. Gaps in employment opportunities between men and women The economy’s ability to provide equal opportunities and treatment for all can be measured by looking at the share of working-age individuals across different groups who are in employment. When looking at differences in

outside of labour markets. Gaps in employment opportunities between men and women The economy’s ability to provide equal opportunities and treatment for all can be measured by looking at the share of working-age individuals across different groups who are in employment. When looking at differences in employment rates between men and women, persistent gender gaps can be observed. These are manifestations of deep structural barriers that women still face when entering and remaining in the world of work, preventing them from fully realising their potential. Gender gaps in employment remain substantial, with only modest and uneven progress Gender gaps in employment, as measured by differences in the employment-to-population ratio by gender, remain

3 Statistics on the contribution of women to total labour income are derived from the August 2024 ILO Modelled estimates on the Gender Income Gap. Labour income includes earnings from wage and self-employment, with the labour income of those not in employment assumed to be zero. 4 The employment-to-population ratio – defined as the number of persons who are employed as a percentage of the total working-age population (those aged 15 and above) – is a key indicator for assessing these disparities. Unlike labour force participation, which includes both employed and unemployed individuals, the employment-to-population ratio captures the ability of an economy to generate employment opportunities and provides a comprehensive view of gender disparities in actual employment outcomes. In contrast, labour force participation can obscure disparities in large across the world.4 In 2024, only 46.4 per cent of working-age women worldwide were employed, compared to 69.5 per cent of men – a gap of 23.1 percentage points (see Figure 1).5 While the global gender employment gap has narrowed over the past three decades, shrinking from 27.1 percentage points in 1991 to 23.1 percentage points in 2024, this progress has been modest and uneven (see Figure A1 in the Appendix). Crucially, this reduction has been driven primarily by a 6percentage-point decline in the male employment rate,

three decades, shrinking from 27.1 percentage points in 1991 to 23.1 percentage points in 2024, this progress has been modest and uneven (see Figure A1 in the Appendix). Crucially, this reduction has been driven primarily by a 6percentage-point decline in the male employment rate, rather than meaningful gains for women, whose global employment rate decreased by 2.3 percentage points over the same period. This underscores the need for genderresponsive employment policies that create decent employment opportunities by promoting job-rich, inclusive and sustainable growth, and decent work for all (ILO 2023a). At the current pace, progress remains too slow and achieving gender parity in employment at the global level would take more than 190 years. employment outcomes, particularly for women, who may be disproportionately represented among the unemployed. 5 Throughout the brief, unless explicitly mentioned otherwise, all statistics at the global, regional and country income group level are derived from the ILO modelled estimates collection. The ILO modelled estimates provide a series of internationally comparable statistics that include both nationally reported observations and imputed data for countries with missing information so that, for every year, global, regional and country income group estimates can be computed with consistent country coverage. For more information on the ILO modelled estimates series, please refer to the ILOSTAT dedicated page.u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 4

Trends in women’s employment-to-population ratios vary significantly across country income groups and regions (see Appendix Figure A2). In 2024, high-income countries exhibited the smallest gender gaps in employment (13.2 p.p.), primarily due to women’s employment-to-population ratio increasing from 46.8 per cent in 1991 to 51.9 per cent in 2024. In contrast, in lowand upper-middle-income countries, women’s employment rates decreased considerably, by 10.8 percentage points and 7.6 percentage points, respectively. At the regional level, countries in the Americas have made

in 2024. In contrast, in lowand upper-middle-income countries, women’s employment rates decreased considerably, by 10.8 percentage points and 7.6 percentage points, respectively. At the regional level, countries in the Americas have made the most progress in closing gender employment gaps, which declined from 28.7 percentage points in 1991 to 18.1 percentage points in 2024. Importantly, this was driven by a steady increase in women’s employment rate in the region, which reached 50.1 per cent in 2024. In the Arab States, despite a narrowing of the gender gap by 6.9 percentage points, women’s employment-to-population ratio remains the lowest globally (16.0 per cent in 2024), reflecting deep-rooted structural barriers to women’s participation in employment. Migrant status also shapes employment opportunities for women. Among migrants, significant gender gaps persist, with migrant women having an employment-topopulation ratio of just 48.1 per cent, compared to 72.8 per cent for migrant men (ILO 2024a). Despite improvements in access to education, young women remain more likely than young men to not be in employment, education or training Examining employment outcomes across age groups reveals additional insights into the pace of progress towards gender equality. In 2024, the employment gap between young men and young women aged 15-24 stood at 12.7 percentage points. While substantial, this gap was notably smaller than the 26-percentage point difference observed for adults aged 25 and above. This narrower gap among youth suggests potential for more equitable employment outcomes as younger generations transition to adulthood. However, the fact that employment gaps amplify as youth transition into

6 Statistics on the share of young women in education or training in any given year are derived by subtracting the employment-to-population ratio adulthood also raises concerns about the accumulation of disadvantages over the lifetime, reinforcing gender inequalities across generations.

employment gaps amplify as youth transition into

6 Statistics on the share of young women in education or training in any given year are derived by subtracting the employment-to-population ratio adulthood also raises concerns about the accumulation of disadvantages over the lifetime, reinforcing gender inequalities across generations. Over the past two decades, the gender gap in youth employment has narrowed by just two percentage points, with employment rates declining by 6 percentage points for young women and 8.1 for young men. Yet, while the share of young men not in employment, education or training (NEET) has remained stable, young women’s NEET rate has dropped by 4.6 percentage points globally since 2005 (see Figure 2), reflecting a stronger shift among young women towards participation in education and training - from 31.3 per cent in 2005 to 41.8 per cent in 2024.6 However, these educational gains have yet to fully translate into meaningful labour market for young adults (aged 15-24) and the NEET rate from 100. All statistics are derived using the indicators from the ILO Modelled estimates.u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 5 opportunities (Stoevska 2021; Bentaouet Kattan and Murad Khan 2023). Structural barriers and social mindsets also continue to disproportionately limit young women’s opportunities for employment and skill development, with young women in 2024 still significantly more likely than men to be NEET in most regions and income groups. To close these gaps, policies must go beyond, expanding access to education. Targeted measures are needed to support young women’s transition into the workforce, by aligning labour, social, and care systems to enable sustainable employment.u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 6 Decent work deficits for women in employment Even when women are employed, they face stark gender inequalities in how they experience their jobs. This section explores gender inequalities in earnings and the type of

employment.u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 6 Decent work deficits for women in employment Even when women are employed, they face stark gender inequalities in how they experience their jobs. This section explores gender inequalities in earnings and the type of work women and men engage in. Gender inequalities in earnings have narrowed, but remain prevalent For most people worldwide, earnings from labour are their primary, if not only, source of income, profoundly impacting their financial security and overall well-being. These earnings may come from wages paid by an employer (wage employment), or income generated through independent work (self-employment). Traditional measures of gender gaps in pay focus on wage workers and find substantial inequalities in wages between men and women. Hourly wage gaps7 show women employees earning an hourly wage that is 87.1 per cent of men’s hourly wage in low-income countries, 87.0 per cent in lower-middle-income countries, 82.0 per cent in upper-middle-income countries, and 88.5 per cent in high-income countries (ILO 2024b). However, the wage gap reflects the reality of about half of the workers, as self-employment constitutes nearly 50 per cent of the global workforce, 80 per cent in low-income countries and 68 per cent in lower-middle income countries.8 Selfemployed workers are also more likely to be represented in the bottom half of the earnings distribution (ILO 2024b). Moreover, the hourly wage gap, aside from excluding the self-employed, abstracts from differences in paid work hours, with women working significantly fewer hours in paid work. Considering both wage workers and the self-employed, as well as gender gaps in paid working hours, the gaps in average annual earnings between female and male workers are substantial. In 2024, female workers earned

7 The wage gap refers to the hourly mean factor-weighted gap. The hourly wage gap is transformed into an hourly wage gender ratio for ease of comparison and is calculated as the average hourly wage of

average annual earnings between female and male workers are substantial. In 2024, female workers earned

7 The wage gap refers to the hourly mean factor-weighted gap. The hourly wage gap is transformed into an hourly wage gender ratio for ease of comparison and is calculated as the average hourly wage of women divided by the average hourly wage of men. just 77.4 cents for every dollar earned by their male counterpart. As seen in Figure 3, the gender ratio in earnings per worker increased by 7.3 cents from 70.1 cents on the dollar in 2004.

Across country income groups, the gender ratio in earnings per worker is the highest in high-income and upper-middle-income countries, with employed women earning 73.0 cents and 71.9 cents, respectively, for every dollar earned by employed men (see Figure A3). In contrast, for every dollar earned by male workers in lowermiddle-income countries, employed women earn only 55.4 cents, and in low-income countries, this figure drops to 45.7 cents. Despite limited progress in addressing barriers to employment, as seen through the employment-topopulation ratios, there have been significant strides in reducing gender inequalities in earnings per worker between 2004 and 2024 across all country income groups. The largest improvements have occurred in lowincome countries, where female workers’ earnings increased from 33.3 cents per dollar earned by male workers in 2004 to 45.7 cents in 2024 (see Figure A3). 8 Statistics on the share of self-employment in total employment are derived from the ILO modelled estimates of employment by sex and status in employment, Nov. 2024.u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 7 Women on average spend fewer hours per week in paid employment Significant gender differences also arise in the number of hours worked for pay per week, as shown in Figure 4. Globally in 2024, employed women worked approximately 6 hours and 25 minutes less per week

Women on average spend fewer hours per week in paid employment Significant gender differences also arise in the number of hours worked for pay per week, as shown in Figure 4. Globally in 2024, employed women worked approximately 6 hours and 25 minutes less per week than men in paid employment, a gap that persists across all regions. This gap has remained largely unchanged since 2005, reflecting enduring inequalities in labour markets that restrict women’s economic opportunities. However, it is interesting to note that both men and women were working around 2 hours less per week on average in 2024 compared to 2005. Importantly, while this indicator highlights critical gender gaps in time devoted to paid work, it fails to capture broader gender inequalities in time allocation across all forms of work, including unpaid care and domestic work. In all regions of the world, women consistently work longer hours than men when both paid work and unpaid care work are accounted for (ILO 2018). In other words, while women spend less time on paid work, they spend more time in unpaid care work, limiting their opportunities to be in the labour market on equal footing as men.

u Women with disabilities face even lower earnings When discrimination based on gender compounds with other grounds of discrimination, such as disability, it can reinforce inequalities in pay. On average, across a sample of 30 countries with available data on wage and disability, where nearly half (14) are developing economies, employees with disabilities earn 12 per cent less per hour than employees without disabilities. Women with disabilities face additional challenges when it comes to pay, as compared to their male counterparts. For a sample of 14 countries for which the average pay can be disaggregated

by sex and disability, women with disabilities earn 6 per cent less on average than men with disabilities in highincome countries, and 5 per cent less in lowand middle-income countries (Ananian and Dellaferrera 2024).u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 8 Women are more likely than men to engage in informal work in lowand lower-middle income countries Another area with significant inequalities is the informal employment9 of women and men. Globally, most workers are engaged in informal employment, often lacking social protection, decent working conditions and collective representation. The informal employment rate in 2024 was higher for men (60 per cent) than for women (55 per cent). However, this gender pattern does not hold across all regions or country income groups, as seen in Appendix Figure A4. In low-income and lower-middle-income countries, where informality is far more common, women have higher informal employment rates than men by 4.9 and 2.3 percentage points, respectively. Conversely, in upper-middle-income and high-income countries, men have higher informal employment rates than women by around 2 percentage points. Overall, informal employment shares have decreased across all income groups and regions, with the decline being more pronounced for women. Nevertheless, progress has been slow. Although informal employment shares are decreasing, informal employment has risen in absolute terms. Total informal employment has increased by 335 million people since 2004, reaching 2.0 billion in 2024. This reflects severe deficits in employment quality for both women and men, with women in lowincome and lower-middle-income countries disproportionately represented in vulnerable jobs. Modest progress in addressing occupational segregation Across many sectors and occupations, women are overrepresented in roles that are typically undervalued, leading to low pay and unacceptable working conditions. This is reflected in both horizontal and vertical segregation in the labour market. As of 2023, women hold only 30 per cent of managerial positions globally, highlighting a persistent gap from the

overrepresented in roles that are typically undervalued, leading to low pay and unacceptable working conditions. This is reflected in both horizontal and vertical segregation in the labour market. As of 2023, women hold only 30 per cent of managerial positions globally, highlighting a persistent gap from the desired parity (see Figure 5). Nevertheless, this represents a modest improvement of approximately 3.5 percentage points over the past two decades. Notably, low-income countries have demonstrated significant progress, with women's representation in management rising from 24.7 to 36.5 per cent. In contrast, lower-middle-income countries have experienced a decline in women’s representation in recent years. There is substantial variation across regions too. In 2004, the Arab States had a mere 8.6 per cent of women in management roles. Since then, they have achieved substantial progress, though women still comprise less

9 Informal employment refers to working arrangements that, either in practice or by law, are not covered by national labour legislation, income taxation, or entitlements such as social protection or employment guarantees. The informal employment rate is calculated as the proportion of informal employment within total employment. 10 Employers are those workers who, working on their own account or with one or a few partners, hold the type of jobs defined as a “selfemployment than a quarter of managerial positions. Conversely, countries in Asia and the Pacific have faced stagnation and, in some cases, regression since 2004. The Americas are progressing towards gender parity, with women holding 40.3 per cent of management roles. Over the past 30 years, the number of women as employers has grown significantly,10 however they still remain a minority among business owners. Globally, for every woman employer, there are close to three male employers, which highlights gender gaps in entrepreneurship (ILO 2025). Beyond women’s position in management and entrepreneurship, gender segregation across various occupations is persistent and rooted in prevailing gender

every woman employer, there are close to three male employers, which highlights gender gaps in entrepreneurship (ILO 2025). Beyond women’s position in management and entrepreneurship, gender segregation across various occupations is persistent and rooted in prevailing gender stereotypes and social norms. Figure A5 in the Appendix shows that women are overrepresented in occupations related to nursing, childcare and cleaning, with women holding 75 per cent or more of these positions. In contrast, men overwhelmingly dominate at 98 per cent in fields such as heavy truck drivers and machinery repairs. This horizontal occupational segregation is also reflected within managerial roles. For instance, in long-term care jobs” (i.e. jobs where the remuneration is directly dependent upon the profits derived from the goods and services produced), and, in this capacity, have engaged, on a continuous basis, one or more persons to work for them as employee(s). The rate of employers is the share of employers in total employment.u Women and the economy: 30 years after the Beijing Declaration 9 services, more than 86 per cent of managers are women, and conversely women represent only 10.8 per cent