UNICEF - Children’s Climate Risk Report 2026

Children’s Climate Risk Report 2026 © UNICEF/UNI779466/RalaivitaCover photo: In March 2025, tropical storm Jude destroyed the secondary school classroom of Christianah, an 11-year-old student in Madagascar. The storm affected more than 26,000 people, displacing nearly half of those impacted. UNICEF collaborated with its partners on disaster preparedness, post-storm response and sustainable recovery. ©UNICEF/UNI779466/Ralaivita

Suggested citation: Children’s Climate Risk Report 2026 . Florence: United

Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 IGO.

General disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of the material including map boundaries in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNICEF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined. The final status of the Abyei area has not yet been determined. All reasonable precautions have been taken by UNICEF to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall UNICEF be liable for damages arising from its use.1Foreword Foreword Zunaira, a young climate activist from Pakistan, gave powerful testimony to world leaders on the impact of climate change on children at the 80th session of the UN General Assembly in 2025: “Children are living the challenges of climate change right now… And the impacts are not just physical – they are emotional, mental and

gave powerful testimony to world leaders on the impact of climate change on children at the 80th session of the UN General Assembly in 2025: “Children are living the challenges of climate change right now… And the impacts are not just physical – they are emotional, mental and deeply personal. The 2022 floods in my country did not just wash away houses. They washed away entire communities. They washed away childhoods. Schools collapsed or turned into shelters. Families lost homes, and children lost the spaces where they felt safe. And when the waters receded, what remained was not only destruction, it was trauma. We are not imagining this crisis – we are living it, and it affects us more than adults can imagine.” Zunaira’s warning of the dire threat climate change poses to children is demonstrated clearly in this year’s Children’s Climate Risk Report – a report which should serve as a wake-up call to world leaders. It provides further evidence of what we already know: children are at the forefront of the impact of climate change. Across the globe, millions of children are now facing multiple climate threats without the necessary services to cope. More than 1 billion children are exposed to at least three climate hazards. They are experiencing extreme heat that causes heatstroke and dehydration. Their homes and schools are being destroyed by storms and floods. Devastating droughts are limiting their access to food and water. And in many cases, the intensity of these hazards is increasing with each passing year. We must invest more in adapting essential services to the impact of climate change. But to do so effectively, we need data to understand where the most exposed and vulnerable children live. This report is an important milestone in our understanding of how climate hazards are affecting children. Through new data from the UNICEF Global Child Hazard Database, we can now see where children are exposed to a variety of hazards within countries at an unprecedented

children live. This report is an important milestone in our understanding of how climate hazards are affecting children. Through new data from the UNICEF Global Child Hazard Database, we can now see where children are exposed to a variety of hazards within countries at an unprecedented level of detail. Combined with data on existing social service access and capacities, governments can map where children are most at risk to climate shocks and stresses. The data in this report is a key tool for decision makers, helping them plan smarter, act faster and invest more effectively in climate-resilient services for children. However, as this report demonstrates, some children are significantly more vulnerable than others. This is due to a range of factors, including limited access to essential services, gender inequality, displacement and disability. The global community is beginning to address these impacts. Through political will, partnerships, and collaborating with young people, the case studies in this report prove that progress is possible. But the scale and ambition of action must be rapidly accelerated to ensure that every child is protected from climate impacts. A better future, for children and for our planet, is still within reach. We must act now. Catherine Russell UNICEF Executive Director2Executive summary Executive summary While climate hazards have always occurred naturally, human-induced global warming is already changing much of the world as we know it. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, several climate hazards have increased in frequency and intensity, and often overlap. New, more granular data in this report reveals the staggering number of children already exposed to climate-related hazards globally. The scale of this exposure underscores the urgency of the crisis. Almost all children are now exposed to at least one of the following climate hazards: • riverine floods • coastal floods • droughts • tropical storms • heatwaves • extreme heat • fires • sand and dust storms The impact on children’s physical and mental health and wellbeing and their access to education and

to at least one of the following climate hazards: • riverine floods • coastal floods • droughts • tropical storms • heatwaves • extreme heat • fires • sand and dust storms The impact on children’s physical and mental health and wellbeing and their access to education and protection is huge, yet barely quantified. Storms and floods displace families and interrupt daily life. Record-smashing heat causes widespread heatstroke and dehydration. Droughts cause food and nutritional insecurity. These climate hazards exacerbate deadly infectious diseases, such as dengue and malaria, and lead to air-polluting wildfires. Children are disproportionately affected by the consequences of climate hazards, as their developing bodies make it harder for them to cope with the physical and psychological stresses. They also increasingly experience displacement and instability in the wake of climate shocks, further worsening their vulnerabilities. But while the climate crisis is a global phenomenon, its effects are not felt equally. Children are not a homogeneous group. They are affected in different ways and to varying degrees depending on their age, gender, disability and ethnicity (including Indigenous identity). Some children are far more exposed than others due to limited access to essential social services because of their location or socio-economic status. This leads to overlapping vulnerabilities. About this report Without identifying who the most vulnerable children are, where they live, and how they are affected by climate-related impacts, developing practical and effective solutions for adaptation and disaster risk reduction is nearly impossible. The Children’s Climate Risk Report provides the most comprehensive picture to date of the threat to children from the climate crisis and its impacts. In an unprecedented level of detail, it shows how children’s exposure to multiple, overlapping climate hazards, combined with their inherent physical vulnerabilities and gaps in the social services they rely on, undermines their rights and increases their risk of harm. Using new UNICEF datasets, this report presents high resolution estimates for a range of climate

it shows how children’s exposure to multiple, overlapping climate hazards, combined with their inherent physical vulnerabilities and gaps in the social services they rely on, undermines their rights and increases their risk of harm. Using new UNICEF datasets, this report presents high resolution estimates for a range of climate hazards that affect children. It also considers two hazards that are not primarily driven by Earth’s climate but are highly sensitive to and compounded by it – vector-borne diseases (malaria) and air pollution.3Executive summary The analysis of hazards is linked to data on coverage of essential social services that directly affect children’s vulnerability and capacity to cope with the climate crisis, including health, nutrition, water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), education, child protection, and social protection services. This evidence is presented in a framework that governments and partners can use to identify where children are most at risk from climate-related hazards and act to reduce children’s climate vulnerabilities. Children’s exposure to hazards Climate hazards can occur anywhere. However, they only become a risk when they overlap with where people, livelihoods or other assets are; that is, where people are exposed to the hazard. Children’s exposure to hazards varies widely between and within countries. When hazards are geographically concentrated, they may affect children in one region of a country while others remain relatively unaffected. In such a context, governments can redirect resources and target the children affected. Risks are serious but remain localized. In other countries, when entire territories are exposed, almost all children can be affected at once. Health systems, schools, water and sanitation services, and social Children’s exposure to climate hazards 1.8 billion 662 million 123 million 337 million 206 million 33 million 1.2 billion 1.5 billion Droughts Tropical storms Riverine floods Extreme heat FiresSand and dust storms Coastal floods Heatwaves Air pollutants 2.3 billionChildren’s exposure

123 million 337 million 206 million 33 million 1.2 billion 1.5 billion Droughts Tropical storms Riverine floods Extreme heat FiresSand and dust storms Coastal floods Heatwaves Air pollutants 2.3 billionChildren’s exposure to climate-sensitive hazards 1 billion Malaria Figure 1: Overview of the number of children exposed to climate-related hazards4Executive summary protection systems come under simultaneous strain. In such a context, risks are no longer local but system-wide. The capacity of governments to protect and support children to cope with and adapt to climate hazards varies widely depending on income, fragility and wider structural constraints, particularly in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and landlocked developing countries (LLDCs). Multiple overlapping hazards Globally, 1.1 billion children are exposed to at least three overlapping climate hazards. The climate crisis does not manifest as a single event. For millions of children, the reality is a complex and dangerous cascade of multiple, overlapping hazards. This compounding of threats overwhelms the capacity of unprepared social services and undermines the resilience of families and communities. For instance, intense droughts can devastate crops and worsen food insecurity. Dry vegetation left behind by a drought can fuel wildfires, which in turn exacerbate air pollution and leave the land vulnerable to flash floods later in the year. These floods can destroy infrastructure such as homes, schools and hospitals, displace communities and spread waterborne diseases. These effects can create a vicious cycle: destroyed homes can lead to displacement, which can result in a lack of shelter, depriving children of protection from additional impacts and making them even more susceptible to future hazards. Disrupted education can have lifelong consequences, making it harder for children to build a stable future and break free from hardship. Children’s exposure to multiple climate-only hazards Almost all children 2 billion children 364 million children 53 million children 4 million children 123,000 children 1.1 billion children at least 1 hazard

break free from hardship. Children’s exposure to multiple climate-only hazards Almost all children 2 billion children 364 million children 53 million children 4 million children 123,000 children 1.1 billion children at least 1 hazard at least 2 hazards at least 3 hazards at least 5 hazards at least 6 hazards at least 7 hazards at least 4 hazards Figure 2: Overview of the number of children exposed to multiple climate hazards5Executive summary Absolute and relative exposure Unsurprisingly, countries with large child populations consistently appear at the top of the absolute exposure lists. In countries with massive child and youth populations – such as Bangladesh , India, Nigeria and Pakistan – even if in some cases the relative percentage of children exposed to multiple climate hazards is low, the absolute number exposed is still high. Conversely, countries with relatively low absolute populations, especially in SIDS and LLDCs, often experience the highest relative exposure to individual climate hazards, reflecting the high concentration of specific risks across their territories. Multi-hazard intensity Multi-hazard intensity analysis distinguishes areas that experience frequent but mild events from those that face less frequent but more devastating events. High intensity multi-hazard exposures are often greatest in the most populated countries, such as Egypt, India, Nigeria and Pakistan. When examining the relative exposure of children to multi-hazard intensity, we find that children in the Sahel are the most exposed, especially in Burkina Faso, Central African Republic , Mali, South Sudan and Sudan. Children’s vulnerability A climate hazard becomes a disaster only when it disrupts the lives and livelihoods of individuals, families and communities. For a child, vulnerability is defined both by biological sensitivity and coping capacity. This coping capacity is measured through access to essential social services children rely on to survive and thrive. When these systems are weak, inaccessible or not resilient to climate shocks, children’s lives are at risk.

child, vulnerability is defined both by biological sensitivity and coping capacity. This coping capacity is measured through access to essential social services children rely on to survive and thrive. When these systems are weak, inaccessible or not resilient to climate shocks, children’s lives are at risk. This report examines six key service areas critical to children’s resilience to climate hazards:

1. Health services: In 2024, 20 million children missed out on life-saving vaccines, including 14.3 million children who did not receive a single dose of a diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis-containing vaccine. Climate shocks could further worsen existing vulnerabilities by destroying clinics, disrupting vaccine cold chains and increasing the spread of diseases.

2. Nutrition services: Droughts and floods devastate crops, disrupt food supply chains and drive malnutrition. Without timely action, climate change is estimated to cause an additional 28 million children to be wasted and 40 million children to be stunted globally by 2050.

3. Water, sanitation and hygiene services: In 2024, 634 million children still lacked safely managed drinking water, 1 billion lacked safely managed sanitation and 489 million lacked basic hygiene. Floods contaminate water sources and droughts dry them up, leaving children vulnerable to deadly diseases and increasing burdens such as fetching water.

4. Education services: Storms destroy schools and heatwaves disrupt learning, robbing children of their future. In 2024 alone, at least 242 million students in 85 countries and territories had their schooling disrupted by climate-related hazardous events.

5. Child protection services: Climate-driven displacement and poverty increase the risks of child labour, child marriage and family separation. Between 2016 and 2023, there were 62.1 million internal displacements of children from climate hazards, the equivalent of more than 21,000 child displacements per day.

6. Social protection services: Families without access to shock-responsive cash transfers or

separation. Between 2016 and 2023, there were 62.1 million internal displacements of children from climate hazards, the equivalent of more than 21,000 child displacements per day.

6. Social protection services: Families without access to shock-responsive cash transfers or other support are compelled into negative coping mechanisms. Over 130 million people could be pushed into extreme poverty by 2030 because of climate change.

The ability of governments to reduce children’s vulnerability and increase their capacity to cope with and adapt to climate hazards is often affected by wider structural constraints,6Executive summary Map 1: Areas with exposure to multiple hazards at the highest intensities for eight hazard subsets – riverine floods, coastal floods, tropical storms, droughts, heatwaves, extreme heat, fires, and sand and dust storms Multi-hazard intensity exposure (index) Very low (0–1.7)  Low (1.7–4.0)  Medium (4.0–5.1)  High (5.1–7.1)  Very high (7.1–10)7Executive summary especially in low income countries, fragile states, SIDS and LLDCs. While these important factors are not quantified in the Children’s Climate Risk Framework, they can have far reaching impacts on children’s vulnerability and are important to consider as contextual information in addition to the analysis presented. Children’s climate risk analysis This report presents a framework for assessing where children are most at risk and argues that risk-informed decisions are best made based on a systematic analysis of hazard exposure and vulnerability that considers the specific country context. The latest available data on children’s hazard exposure and child-specific vulnerabilities can be used to support different types of risk analysis, depending on the context: • Hazard-specific risk analysis can help governments, humanitarian and development organizations develop targeted interventions in response to specific hazards, such as establishing early warning systems and planning infrastructure. • Sector-specific risk analysis can help

critical services are prioritized in national adaptation plans and sectoral strategies, disaster preparedness and response plans, and strategies to respond to loss and damage. • Empower children and young people to meaningfully participate in climate action and a just transition by investing in climate education, knowledge and skills, and strengthening the capacity of decision makers and experts to respect children’s rights to be heard, freedom of expression, and participation in decisions that affect their lives. Ensure children’s needs and perspectives are reflected in local, national, regional and global decision making on climate policy and climate finance.8Contents Contents 1 Foreword 2 Executive summary 2 About this report 3 Children’s exposure to hazards 4 Multiple overlapping hazards 5 Children’s vulnerability 7 A call to action: for every child 9 Abbreviations 10 Chapter 1: Children living with risk 10 Overview 11 Children are uniquely threatened by climate-related hazards 11 The climate crisis is a child rights crisis 13 Key concepts 14 Foundational instruments for child climate risk 16 How to use this report 17 Chapter 2: Children’s exposure to climate-related hazards 17 Exposure to intense climate hazards is a global reality for children 18 2.1. Climate hazards 36 2.2. Climate-sensitive hazards 41 Chapter 3: Children’s exposure to multiple, overlapping hazards 42 3.1. Assessing multi-hazard exposure 44 3.2. Multi-hazard count 46 3.3. Multi-hazard intensity 48 Chapter 4: Children’s vulnerability in relation to social systems and services 51 4.1. Health services 53 4.2. Nutrition services 54 4.3. Water, sanitation and hygiene services 56 4.4. Education services 58 4.5. Child protection services 59 4.6. Social protection services 62 Chapter 5: Analysing children’s

and protect human rights, including children’s rights, arise not only under climate law, but also under international biodiversity law, international law on desertification and land degradation, and the law of the sea. The increasing and overlapping impacts of the climate crisis put children’s lives and futures at risk. These risks are particularly acute for children who already experience deprivation due to intersecting inequalities, such as discrimination based on gender, ethnicity and disability. Upholding every child’s right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment requires urgent, coordinated and child-responsive climate policies, action and investment to: • Reduce emissions across all sectors and take ambitious action to fulfil existing international commitments, grounded in the best available science. This includes the urgent phasing-out of fossil fuels and a just transition towards renewable energy and energy efficiency in line with 1.5°C pathways – ensuring the best interests of the child are a primary consideration. • Protect children through inclusive climate adaptation and responses to loss and damage that prioritize the resilience of social services children rely on to survive and thrive. Ensure children and child-critical services are prioritized in national adaptation plans and sectoral strategies, disaster preparedness and response plans, and strategies to respond to loss and damage.79Policy recommendations and calls to action • Empower children and young people to meaningfully participate in climate action and a just transition by investing in climate education, knowledge and skills, and by strengthening the capacity of decision makers and experts to respect children’s right to be heard, freedom of expression, and participation in decisions that affect their lives. Ensure children’s needs and perspectives are reflected in local, national, regional and global decision making on climate policy and climate finance. Child-centred climate action must prioritize the most marginalized children and populations at greatest risk and protect the frontline workers who deliver essential services for children. It must advance gender equality, and respect and integrate Indigenous knowledge and cultural

Children’s exposure to climate-sensitive hazards • 1 billion children exposed to malaria • Almost all children, 2.3 billion, estimated to live in areas with detectable air pollutants Children’s exposure to multiple climate hazards • Almost all children, 2.3 billion, exposed to at least one climate hazard • 2 billion children exposed to at least two climate hazards • 1.1 billion children exposed to at least three climate hazards • 364 million children exposed to at least four climate hazards • 53 million children exposed to at least five climate hazards • 4 million children exposed to at least six climate hazards Children’s exposure to multiple climate hazards at high intensity • 1.6 billion children exposed to multiple climate hazards at 75th percentile • 1.4 billion children exposed to multiple climate hazards at 80th percentile • 1.2 billion children exposed to multiple climate hazards at 85th percentile13Children living with risk • Protect children through inclusive climate adaptation and responses to loss and damage that prioritize the resilience of social services children rely on to survive and thrive. Ensure children and child-critical services are prioritized in national adaptation plans and sectoral strategies, disaster preparedness and response plans, and strategies to respond to loss and damage. • Empower children and young people to meaningfully participate in climate action and a just transition by investing in climate education, knowledge and skills, and by strengthening the capacity of decision makers and experts to respect children’s rights to be heard, freedom of expression, and participation in decisions that affect their lives. Ensure children’s needs and perspectives are reflected in local, national, regional and global decision making on climate policy and climate finance.

International law is clear: countries must take the most ambitious action possible according to their differential responsibilities, capacities and national circumstances to limit climate change and protect children from harm. Using new UNICEF datasets, this report shows how governments can take account of climate risks for children in national policies and plans for adaptation and disaster risk reduction, and design targeted interventions to support and protect the most vulnerable children

protection and child protection services.

Source: United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF Toolkit: Childand youth-sensitive Nationally Determined Contributions, UNICEF, 2024 <https://www.unicef.org/media/163776/file/ChildandYouthSensitiveNDCsToolkit-English.pdf >.

Climate-resilient services are robust to disturbances, anticipative to hazards and responsive to climaterelated shocks and stresses in ways that reduce disruptions and maintain the service’s essential functions. In doing so, they promote inter-generational equity and reduce the backsliding of development investments.

Definition: Adapted from IPCC AR6 definition of resilience49Children’s vulnerability in relation to social systems and services The ability of governments to reduce children’s vulnerability and to increase their capacity to cope with and adapt to climate hazards is often affected by wider structural constraints, especially in low income countries, fragile states, SIDS and LLDCs. While these important factors are not quantified in the Children’s Climate Risk Framework, they can have far reaching impacts on children’s vulnerability and are important to consider as contextual information in addition to the analysis presented.

This chapter focuses on six child-critical areas of service delivery that provide an indication of the adaptive capacity of social systems and services to climate hazards (figure 16). While this report highlights individual services, it is important to note that these systems do not operate in isolation. Greater adaptive capacity is needed across and between child-critical social services to meet children’s needs. Adaptive capacity is determined by a complex interaction of context-specific factors, which can facilitate or hinder a child’s ability to cope with and recover from climate impacts. In the absence of standardized global indicators for monitoring adaptive capacity, the indicators in figure 16 were selected as proxies across several key dimensions, such as economy, infrastructure, institutions and social factors. Child vulnerability Mortality under 5 per 1,000 live birthsChild survival WASH Basic hygiene

used to support different types of risk analysis, depending on the context: • Hazard-specific risk analysis can help governments, humanitarian and development organizations develop targeted interventions in response to specific hazards, such as establishing early warning systems and planning infrastructure. • Sector-specific risk analysis can help ministries identify hazards that compound specific types of child vulnerability in childcritical social sectors and develop strategies for child-critical systems and services, such as WASH, nutrition, education, child protection, health, and social protection. • Multi-dimensional risk analysis can help policy makers gain a comprehensive understanding of system-wide risk that affects multiple populations, sectors and services. Rather than addressing threats in isolation, this holistic approach can help design comprehensive national adaptation plans that protect the most marginalized communities from multiple, overlapping hazards.

A call to action: for every child Upholding every child’s right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment requires urgent, coordinated and child-responsive climate policies, action and investment.

To protect children, governments and partners must strengthen the climate resilience of the key sectors that shape young lives. UNICEF calls on governments and partners to: • Reduce emissions across all sectors and take ambitious action to fulfil existing international commitments, grounded in the best available science. This includes the urgent phasing-out of fossil fuels and a just transition towards renewable energy and energy efficiency in line with 1.5°C pathways, ensuring the best interests of the child are a primary consideration. • Protect children through inclusive climate adaptation and responses to loss and damage that prioritize the resilience of social services children rely on to survive and thrive. Ensure children and childcritical services are prioritized in national adaptation plans and sectoral strategies, disaster preparedness and response plans, and strategies to respond to loss and damage. • Empower children and young people to meaningfully participate in climate action and a just transition by investing in climate

53 4.2. Nutrition services 54 4.3. Water, sanitation and hygiene services 56 4.4. Education services 58 4.5. Child protection services 59 4.6. Social protection services 62 Chapter 5: Analysing children’s climate risk based on hazard exposure and vulnerability 65 5.1. Hazard-specific risk analysis 72 5.2. Sector-specific risk analysis 75 5.3. Multi-dimensional risk analysis 78 Chapter 6: Policy recommendations and calls to action 79 Risk-informed investments and targeted climate finance benefit ch