OIM - Migration Policy Practice (Volume XIII, Number 2, July 2024)

Short articles to better connect migration research, policy and practice worldwide ISSN 2223-5248 Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024

MIGRATION

POLICY PRACTICE Human mobility in times of major global transformations Marie McAuliffe, Charles Kwenin, Richa Arora and Jenna Blower-Nassiri World Migration Report 2024: Introduction and overview Marie McAuliffe and Linda Oucho Shifting perceptions on migration: insights and strategies from Latin America and the Caribbean Felipe Muñoz Gómez, Marta Luzes and Lucina Rodríguez The protection of the welfare of Filipino seafarers working on foreign-flagged ships Jabeth Dacanay, Roderick Galam and Jean Pia Capitalizing on the climate adaptation potential of labour migration: new institutions or continued incoherence? Sam Huckstep and Michael Clemens Developing regional migration, environment and climate change policy frameworks for action: the case of the Kampala Ministerial Declaration Lisa Lim Ah Ken, Jyri J. Jäntti, Noora K. Makela and Rose Kobusinge Foreign-trained doctors in Seychelles: cooperation, capacity-building and migration diplomacy Kendra Shields and Margaret Walton-Roberts Surviving food deserts: migrants, refugees and urban food systems in Bloemfontein, South Africa Abraham R. Matamanda and Johannes I. Bhanye 2 4 12 19 28 35 41 48Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024

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2 Human mobility in times of major global transformations Marie McAuliffe, Charles Kwenin, Richa Arora and Jenna Blower-Nassiri1 1 Key global transformations are affecting migration and displacement in ways we have not seen before. Major geopolitical, environmental and technological transformations are intensifying and impacting transnational conflict in new and dangerous ways, as in the case of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in early 2022, which has had widespread impacts on global food security, energy security and

before. Major geopolitical, environmental and technological transformations are intensifying and impacting transnational conflict in new and dangerous ways, as in the case of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in early 2022, which has had widespread impacts on global food security, energy security and international law. Additionally, recent conflicts in places like Gaza have underscored the rapidly evolving and increasingly perilous geopolitical landscape. Ongoing environmental challenges, including pollution, climate heating and biodiversity collapse, continue to drive migration and displacement. The increasing frequency of extreme weather events and ecological degradation underscores the urgent need for proactive measures to mitigate their impacts on human mobility.

Meanwhile, artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are evolving rapidly, transforming our daily lives in so many ways, including our interactions with migration and mobility systems. While AI has the potential to enhance migration management, its uneven adoption risks exacerbating digital divides both between and within countries. Many nations, particularly least developed countries (LDCs), lack the necessary infrastructure and expertise to leverage AI effectively. This digital 1 Marie McAuliffe, IOM; Charles Kwenin, University of Ghana; Richa Arora, GiZ; and Jenna Blower, IOM and York University. divide could further marginalize these countries in global migration governance. Moreover, the World Migration Report 2024 highlights the broader implications of digitalization on migration, stressing the need for digital equality to ensure safe, orderly and regular migration. The introduction of multilateral frameworks and cooperative measures provides some optimism for addressing these challenges, but significant work remains to ensure that technological advancements benefit all stakeholders in the migration process.

It is in this evolving global context that this issue of Migration Policy Practice features a range of articles analysing the latest trends and data in migration to support informed policymaking and implementation. Through these individual articles, the issue zooms in on various aspects of regional challenges owing to migration – for example,

It is in this evolving global context that this issue of Migration Policy Practice features a range of articles analysing the latest trends and data in migration to support informed policymaking and implementation. Through these individual articles, the issue zooms in on various aspects of regional challenges owing to migration – for example, migrant integration and its public impact in Latin America and the Caribbean (Muñoz, Luzes and Rodriguez), or different legalities and nuances of migrant protection of Filipino workers in the maritime industry (Dacanay, Galam and Pia). In the wake of increasing climate shocks, this issue emphasizes the need for countries to take into account climate factors while developing or implementing their labour migration policies (Huckstep and Clemens) and brings forward a case study of the Kampala Ministerial Declaration on Migration, Environment and Climate Change (KDMECC) as a regional framework for addressing climate-induced migration at the regional level (Lim Ah Ken, Jäntti, Makela and3 Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE Kobusinge). This issue also examines the impact of migration on local society through a couple of case studies, specifically on the role of foreign doctors in Seychelles (Shields and WaltonRoberts) and on the food systems of migrants in an urban city of South Africa (Matamanda and Bhanye). The Migration Policy Practice Editorial Team would like to extend its gratitude to the 2022–2023 peer reviewers (see details in text box), as well as the Editorial Advisory Committee (see details on the last page of this issue) for their critical contributions to supporting research and analysis in migration policy and practice.

We hope you enjoy this issue. Marie, Charles, Richa and Jenna 2022–2023 MPP Peer Reviewers • Pablo Ceriani (National University of Lanús) • Mariam Traore Chazalnoel (IOM) • Tesseltje de Lange (Radboud University) • Pablo Escribano (IOM) • Meltem Ersan (Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality) • Uma Kollamparambil (University of the Witwatersrand) • Sabina Kubiciel-Lodzińska (Opole University of Technology) • Taehoon Lee (Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies)

• Jeremaiah M. Opiniano (University of Santo Tomas)
• Souad Osserian (Koç University)
• Linda Oucho (African Migration and Development Policy Centre) • Juliana Quintero (IOM) • S. Irudaya Rajan (International Institute of Migration and

Development) • Sujata Ramachandran (Wilfrid Laurier University) • Marcela Valdivia (Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing)

• Margaret Walton-Roberts (Wilfrid Laurier University)
• Bilesha Weeraratne (Institute of Policy Studies Sri Lanka) • Teddy Wilkin (European Union Agency for Asylum) • Erol Yayboke (Center for Strategic and International

Studies)Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024

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4 World Migration Report 2024: Introduction and overview Marie McAuliffe and Linda Oucho1 Introduction It has been more than two years since the release of the World Migration Report 2022 , which provided an overview of the global transformations intensely affecting migration and displacement around the world. While acknowledging ongoing changes related to demographic transitions, as well as economic and social transformations, the 2022 report outlined the major geopolitical, environmental and technological transformations that shape migration and mobility, sometimes profoundly. The impacts of these systemic global shifts have

and displacement around the world. While acknowledging ongoing changes related to demographic transitions, as well as economic and social transformations, the 2022 report outlined the major geopolitical, environmental and technological transformations that shape migration and mobility, sometimes profoundly. The impacts of these systemic global shifts have only intensified further in the last two-year period. For example, hardening geopolitics has seen us witness previously unthinkable conflict in terms of both scale and nature. The full-scale invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in early 2022 signalled a pivotal shift for the world, with some arguing that it “marked an abrupt end to 30 years of globalization and all the international cooperation that made that possible”.2 The immediate impacts on Ukraine and Europe continue to be felt by millions of people, while the global affects have touched many more, as the war ripples through 1 Marie McAuliffe is the Head of the Migration Research and Publications Division of IOM. Linda Oucho is the Executive Director of the Africa Migration and Development Policy Centre. This short article is an extract of the Overview chapter of the World Migration Report 2024. 2 Bronwen Maddox, The Director’s Annual Lecture 2023, video recording. Chatham House, The Royal Institute of International Affairs (10 January 2023). food security, energy security, international law, multilateralism, military strategy and alliances. 3 More recently, and notwithstanding devastating conflicts in many places around the world in the last two years (such as in Afghanistan, Ethiopia, the Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen), the conflict in Gaza is profoundly shocking for even the most seasoned geopolitical analysts, as well as long-serving humanitarians. 4 The regional and global consequences are potentially severe, highlighting how geopolitics are changing quickly and in dangerous ways. 5 At the time of writing (November 2023), the number of deaths and displacements are already very high, and the humanitarian response intensely difficult and complex.6 It is fair to say that the intensification of

highlighting how geopolitics are changing quickly and in dangerous ways. 5 At the time of writing (November 2023), the number of deaths and displacements are already very high, and the humanitarian response intensely difficult and complex.6 It is fair to say that the intensification of ecologically negative human activity, an issue raised in the previous World Migration Report (i.e. the 2022 edition), has only intensified: Overconsumption and overproduction linked to unsustainable economic growth, resource 3 Stuart Coles, Lisa Rellstab, Pepin Bergsen, John Kampfner, Ben Bland, Alex Vines, Sanam Vakil, Alice Billon-Galland, Jamie Shea, Kataryna Wolczuk, Yu Jie, Magdalene Karalis, Keir Giles, Patricia Lewis, Antony Froggatt, John Lough, Laura Wellesley, Tim Benton, James Nixey, Joanna Szostek, Orysia Lutsevych, Rashmin Sagoo and Timothy Ash, “ Seven ways Russia’s war on Ukraine has changed the world”, blog post. Chatham House (20 February 2023). 4 Robin Wright, “ The five global dangers from the Gaza war ”, blog post. Wilson Center (31 October 2023). 5 Nabeel A. Khoury, “Gaza and the harbingers of future conflict ”, blog post. Arab Center Washington, D.C. (30 October 2023). 6 Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), ““We need an immediate humanitarian ceasefire”, statement by principals of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee, on the situation in Israel and the Occupied Palestinian T erritory”, article. IASC (5 November 2023).5 Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE depletion and biodiversity collapse, as well as ongoing climate change (including global heating), are continuing to grip the world. We are more aware than ever before of the extremely negative consequences of human activities that are not preserving the planet’s ecological

MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE depletion and biodiversity collapse, as well as ongoing climate change (including global heating), are continuing to grip the world. We are more aware than ever before of the extremely negative consequences of human activities that are not preserving the planet’s ecological systems. The potential consequences for human migration and mobility are high in terms of global consciousness as climate records continue to be broken,7 even as the specific future impacts and scenarios continue to be contested, discussed and debated.8 At any rate, there is a strong sense that major impacts will occur without adequate preventative actions related to carbon emissions and green technology uptake, as well as more granular preparedness actions, such as disaster risk reduction work underpinned by climate finance.9 In the previous edition of the World Migration Report, we presented a chapter analysing the use of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in migration systems, while also pointing to the ongoing impacts of technological change across wide areas of social, political and economic life globally. Since then, we have witnessed major advances in AI, especially generative AI tools that have burst onto the world stage, impacting 7 Such as the worst wildfire season (Canada) and the hottest summer (global), as well as the driest September (Australia), on record. 8 United Nations Security Council, “With climate crisis generating growing threats to global peace, security council must ramp up efforts, lessen risk of conflicts, speakers stress in open debate”, meeting coverage (SC/15318 of 13 June 2023). 9 John Birkmann, Emma Liwenga, Rajiv Pandey, Emily Boyd, Riyanti Djalante, François Gemenne, Walter Leal Filho, Patricia Fernanda Pinho, Lindsay Stringer and David Wrathall, “Poverty, livelihoods and sustainable development”, in Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Intergovernmental Panel on

Lindsay Stringer and David Wrathall, “Poverty, livelihoods and sustainable development”, in Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report (H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig,

S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)) (Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, Cambridge University Press, 2022). a wide range of sectors and occupations, with calls from some to embrace such tools10 while others (most notably the creators of the latest generative AI tools themselves) caution against the increasing proliferation of AI technologies throughout our societies.11

The highly uneven, sustained use of AI in only some migration systems points to the heightened risk that AI technologies in migration and mobility systems are on track to exacerbating digital divides, both between and within States.12 A prerequisite to AI uptake is digital capability in information and communications technology (ICT), particularly the digital data capture of processes and applicants’ identity data. These actions require access to ICT infrastructure and electricity, as well as skilled ICT staff – critical necessities lacking in many countries around the world, but most especially least developed countries (LDCs).13 This is yet another domain in which differential capacities and resources widen the gap between States, adding to the digital divide and the structural disadvantages experienced by LDCs in migration management. This “asymmetry of power” in AI for migration is an ongoing problem globally, likely to be exacerbated with every new advance.14 10 Justin Doubleday, “New HHS research agency ‘fully embracing’ generative AI”, Federal News Network (21 November 2023). 11 James Vincent, “T op AI researchers and CEOs warn against ‘risk of

is an ongoing problem globally, likely to be exacerbated with every new advance.14 10 Justin Doubleday, “New HHS research agency ‘fully embracing’ generative AI”, Federal News Network (21 November 2023). 11 James Vincent, “T op AI researchers and CEOs warn against ‘risk of extinction’ in 22-word statement”, The Verge (30 May 2023). 12 Marie McAuliffe, “AI in migration is fuelling global inequality: How can we bridge the gap?” The Agenda Weekly (of the World Economic Forum) (25 January 2023). 13 Ratnakar Adhikari and Taffere T esfachew, “T echnology is the key to transforming least developed countries. Here’s how”, The Agenda Weekly (of the World Economic Forum) (13 January 2022). 14 Ana Beduschi and Marie McAuliffe, “Artificial intelligence, migration and mobility: implications for policy and practice” in World Migration Report 2022 (M. McAuliffe and A. Triandafyllidou, eds.) (Geneva, IOM, 2021).6 Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE H owever, it is not just inequality between States that will impact migrants. The move towards greater digitalization of migration management and increased use of AI, including for visa services, border processing and identity management, will increasingly require potential migrants to be able to engage with authorities via digital channels. This poses obstacles for many people around the world who do not have access to ICT.15 Supporting access to safe, orderly and regular migration requires that digital equality is actively supported. Migration continues to be part of the solution for many economies, societies and families around the world Despite some of the toxicity of political narratives that rely on hate and division, migration has long served many millions of people around the world well – whether in origin, transit or destination countries – providing opportunities and enriching their lives. However, barely a day goes by without

and families around the world Despite some of the toxicity of political narratives that rely on hate and division, migration has long served many millions of people around the world well – whether in origin, transit or destination countries – providing opportunities and enriching their lives. However, barely a day goes by without multiple media reports – whether in traditional or newer forms of media – focusing on negative aspects of migration. While this may reflect the changing nature of migration in some parts of the world, it is important to recognize that media reporting continues to place greater emphasis on “bad” news.16 In addition, disinformation tactics are increasingly being used by nefarious actors, with negative impacts on public, political and social media discourse on migration.17 15 International T elecommunication Union (ITU), Measuring Digital Development: Facts and Figures 2020 (Geneva, ITU, 2020). 16 William Allen, Scott Blinder and Robert McNeil, “Media reporting of migrants and migration”, in World Migration Report 2018 (M. McAuliffe and

M. Ruhs, eds.) (Geneva, IOM, 2017). 17 Eileen Culloty, Jane Suiter, Itayi Viriri and Sara Creta, “Disinformation about migration: an age-old issue with new tech dimensions”, in World Migration Report 2022 (M. McAuliffe and A. Triandafyllidou, eds.) (Geneva, IOM, 2021). “Normalizing” the migration narrative is a critical factor in being able to realize the benefits of migration.

In the face of negatively skewed discussions, it can be easy to lose sight of the fact that international migration remains relatively uncommon, with a mere 3.6 per cent (or 281 million) of the world being international migrants. The vast majority of people do not move across borders to live. Long-term research and analysis also tells us unequivocally that migration is a driver of human development and can generate significant benefits for migrants, their families and countries

being international migrants. The vast majority of people do not move across borders to live. Long-term research and analysis also tells us unequivocally that migration is a driver of human development and can generate significant benefits for migrants, their families and countries of origin. The wages that migrants earn abroad can be many multiples of what they could earn doing similar jobs back home. International remittances have grown from an estimated USD 128 billion in 2000 to USD 831 billion in 2022 and now far outstrip official development assistance to developing countries and foreign direct investment. Migration can also provide an important skills boost, which can be critically important for destination countries experiencing population declines. In addition to enhancing national income and average living standards, immigration can have a positive effect on the labour market by increasing labour supply in sectors and occupations suffering from shortages of workers, as well as helping address mismatches in the job market. These positive labour market effects are not just evident in high-skilled sectors but can also occur in lower-skilled occupations. Immigration increases both the supply of and the demand for labour, which means that labour immigration (including of lower-skilled workers) can generate additional employment opportunities for existing workers.7 Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE Research also shows that migrants provide a source of dynamism globally and are overrepresented in innovation and patents, art and science awards, start-ups and successful companies. The immigration of young workers can also help with easing pressures on the pension systems of high-income countries with rapidly ageing populations. While immigration can have adverse labour market effects (e.g. on wages and employment of nationals), most of the research literature finds that these negative impacts tend to be quite small, at least on average.18 Regular migration pathways boost public confidence in migration systems while also protecting migrants. International migration and mobility occurring within regional and global economic, social, political and security environments increasingly reflect migration

literature finds that these negative impacts tend to be quite small, at least on average.18 Regular migration pathways boost public confidence in migration systems while also protecting migrants. International migration and mobility occurring within regional and global economic, social, political and security environments increasingly reflect migration policy settings. Where, how, when and with whom people migrate often depend on the options available to them, with many of these options being determined or shaped by nationallevel policies, as well as regional integration.19 Humanitarian crises due to displacement remain the exception, but they are also on the rise. Forced displacement is the highest on record in the modern era (see Table 3 in the WMR 2024). The situation is further exacerbated by environmental impacts and climate change, which some scientists are predicting will force more than 216 million people across the six 18 Ian Goldin, Andrew Pitt, Benjamin Nabarro and Kathleen Boyle, “Migration and the economy: economic realities, social impacts and political Choices”, Citi Global Perspectives and Solutions and Oxford Martin School report (New York, Citigroup, 2018). 19 Marie McAuliffe, Adrian Kitimbo, Alexandra M. Goossens and A.K.M. Ahsan Ullah, “Understanding migration journeys from migrants’ perspectives” in World Migration Report 2018 (M. McAuliffe and M. Ruhs, eds.) (Geneva, IOM, 2017). inhabited continents to be on the move within their countries by 2050.20

Meanwhile, humanitarian needs are outpacing funding support. As humanitarian needs rise and domestic fiscal pressures grow, many donor countries are under pressure to reduce their development budgets, placing development support to LDCs at risk.21 Meanwhile, the risk of further conflict has not been higher in decades, as military spending reached a new record high of USD  2,240 billion in 2022, reflecting an ongoing reduction in peace globally, as well as rising geopolitical tensions.22 Humanitarian

further conflict has not been higher in decades, as military spending reached a new record high of USD  2,240 billion in 2022, reflecting an ongoing reduction in peace globally, as well as rising geopolitical tensions.22 Humanitarian response will remain, for the foreseeable future, a major undertaking to support some of the most vulnerable people in the world. World Migration Report 2024 Part I, on “key data and information on migration”, includes chapters on global migration trends and patterns, and regional dimensions and developments. These two chapters were produced institutionally by IOM, drawing primarily on analyses by IOM experts, practitioners and officials around the world. The six chapters in Part II are authored by applied and academic researchers working on migration, including those at IOM. These chapters cover a range of “complex and emerging migration issues”, including: • Narrowing of mobility options for people from developing countries since 1995; 20 Viviane Clement, Kanta Kumari Rigaud, Alex de Sherbinin, Bryan Jones, Susana Adamo, Jacob Schewe, Nian Sadiq and Elham Shabahat, Groundswell Part 2: Acting on Internal Climate Migration (Washington, D.C., World Bank, 2021). 21 Development Initiatives, “Key trends in humanitarian need and funding: 2022” in Global Humanitarian Assistance Report 2023 (Bristol, United Kingdom, Development Initiatives, 2023). 22 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), “World military expenditure reaches new record high as European spending surges”, press release (24 April 2023).8 Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE • Human security in migration; • Gender dimensions of migration; • Climate change, food insecurity and migration; • Global governance of migration; • Migration and mobility in a post-COVID world. Part I Chapter 2 provides an overview of the latest available global data and trends on international

• Human security in migration; • Gender dimensions of migration; • Climate change, food insecurity and migration; • Global governance of migration; • Migration and mobility in a post-COVID world.

Part I Chapter 2 provides an overview of the latest available global data and trends on international migrants (stocks) and international migration (flows). It also provides a discussion of particular migrant groups – migrant workers, international students, refugees, asylum-seekers and internally displaced persons – as well as of international remittances. In addition, the chapter refers to the existing body of IOM programmatic data, particularly on missing migrants, assisted voluntary returns and reintegration, resettlement and displacement tracking. Chapter 3 provides a discussion of key regional dimensions of and developments in migration. The discussion focuses on six world regions, as identified by the United Nations: Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, Northern America, and Oceania. For each of these regions, the analysis includes: (a) an overview and brief discussion of key populationrelated statistics, and (b) succinct descriptions of “key features and developments” in migration in the region, based on a wide range of data, information and analyses. Part II Chapter 4: Growing migration inequality: What do the global data actually show?23 This chapter first appeared in the World Migration Report 2022 and has been included in this edition due to the demand for presentations of its analysis. It examines the questions, “Who migrates internationally?” and “Where do they go?” It analyses diverse statistical data and draws upon some of the existing body of research on migration determinants and decision-making. Analysis of the international migrant stock and Human Development Index data shows that between 1995 and 2020, migration from lowand medium-development countries increased, but only slightly, reconfirming existing macroeconomic analyses showing that international migration from low-income countries has historically been limited. Contrary to previous understandings of

and Human Development Index data shows that between 1995 and 2020, migration from lowand medium-development countries increased, but only slightly, reconfirming existing macroeconomic analyses showing that international migration from low-income countries has historically been limited. Contrary to previous understandings of international migration, the analysis indicates that there has been a “polarizing” effect, with migration activity increasingly being associated with highly developed countries. This raises the key issue of migration aspirations held by potential migrants from developing countries around the world who may wish to realize opportunities through international migration but are unable to do so, as regular pathways are unavailable to them. 23 Chapter authors: Marie McAuliffe, Guy Abel, Linda Adhiambo Oucho and Adam Sawyer.9 Vol. XIII, Number 2, July 2024 MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE Chapter 5: Migration and human security: unpacking myths and examining new realities and responses24 This chapter examines the interactions between migration, mobility and human security in contemporary settings at a time when misinformation and disinformation about migration and migrants are both increasing and increasingly effective. The most significant link between migration and security relates to the human security of migrants themselves, rather than the national security of States. The vulnerability of migrants throughout the migration cycle is evident at all stages – predeparture, transit, entry, stay and return – and in a wide variety of manifestations. However, it is important to note that not all international migration is connected to, or caused by, human insecurity. Policies can potentially improve human security for migrants and communities, addressing international, regional, national and subnational policy considerations, as shown in the six short case studies presented in this chapter. There is no one-size-fits-all policy approach to improving human security, as it depends on specific challenges and how they manifest. Therefore, authorities at multiple levels and non-State actors need to actively develop, implement and

policy considerations, as shown in the six short case studies presented in this chapter. There