OIM - Protecting Children in Migration (2025)

PROTECTING CHILDREN IN MIGRATION A Nexus Between Migration and Child Protection in Ethiopia International Organization for Migration (IOM) 17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17, 1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland T el.: +41 22 717 9111 • Fax: +41 22 798 6150 • Email: hq@iom.int • Website: www.iom.intThe opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. _____________________________ Publisher: International Organization for Migration 17 route des Morillons P.O. Box 17 1211 Geneva 19

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Permissions: Requests for commercial use or further rights and licensing should be submitted to publications@ iom.int. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/igo/legalcode PUB2024/021/ELA Nexus Between Migration and Child Protection in Ethiopia

Anita Ramsak, PhD | Eyueil Abate, PhD December 2023 PROTECTING CHILDREN IN MIGRATIONAcknowledgements This research benefited from the cooperation of various organizations and individuals, and the research team would like to extend our deepest appreciation to all who contributed from the genesis of the assignment until the end. “Thank you” to the Ministry for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands for financially supporting this work. Special thanks go to all participants who imparted their opinions, including officeholders in Adama, Addis Ababa and Debre Birhan, as well as community members in these three cities. The authors are very thankful to IOM for initiating this assignment to properly address the needs of children engaged in informal migration. We believe this will have a remarkable effect on the lives of children, now and in the future. We are indebted to Elizabeth Anne “Betsy” Dankenbring of IOM for her relentless support and facilitation as a supervisor in this assignment. “Thank you” also to Bawélé T chalim, former Protection Programme Manager at Sara Basha and Senior Programme Officer (Protection) with IOM Ethiopia; Linda Cottone, Research Officer at COMPASS; and Nimo Ismail, Senior Regional Migration Policy Analysis Specialist at IOM Headquarters and the IOM Regional Office for the East and Horn of Africa (Nairobi). The authors would also like to convey their heartfelt gratitude to Hiwot Gizaw, of the

Research Officer at COMPASS; and Nimo Ismail, Senior Regional Migration Policy Analysis Specialist at IOM Headquarters and the IOM Regional Office for the East and Horn of Africa (Nairobi). The authors would also like to convey their heartfelt gratitude to Hiwot Gizaw, of the Ministry of Justice of Ethiopia, and Million Fikru, of the Arada Sub-city Women and Children Affairs Office, for their exceptional cooperation in providing the data and resources we need. We also would like to express our deepest appreciation to Arega Kebede, Head of the Bureau of Labor and Training for Amhara Regional State, and Fantaye Tadese, Head of the Oromia National Regional Government Labor and Social Affairs Bureau, for helping ensure a smooth data-collection process by issuing a letter of support for this endeavour. We also would like to thank the Head of the Adama City Women and Social Affairs Bureau and the Head of the Debre Birhan City Labor and Skills Office for their exceptional facilitation of the focus group discussions. We were able to obtain valuable information from the IOM Transit Centre in Addis Ababa due to the support and facilitation of Mohammed Abdullahi and Megos Desalegn. We are also very pleased to thank the administration of the Woinshet Camp for internally displaced persons in Debre Birhan for their invaluable support in enabling us obtain much-needed data. Finally, we were able to feel the pain of informal migration on parents due to our conversation with an aunt of an abducted child. She dedicated much time imparting her story despite being in deep trauma. We hope her words are reflected in our work and that it impacts positive change in Ethiopia, especially for children on the move. iiiAcronyms BID best interests determination CBO community-based organization CCC community care coalition COMPASS Cooperation on Migration and Partnerships to Achieve Sustainable Solutions CSA Central Statistics Authority of Ethiopia DOS United States Department of State FBO faith-based organization FGD focus group discussion GIZ The German Agency for International Cooperation (German: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) IDP internally displaced person ILO International Labour Organization

Sustainable Solutions CSA Central Statistics Authority of Ethiopia DOS United States Department of State FBO faith-based organization FGD focus group discussion GIZ The German Agency for International Cooperation (German: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) IDP internally displaced person ILO International Labour Organization INGO international non-governmental organization KII key informant interview MoWSA Ministry of Women and Social Affairs of Ethiopia NCMS National Case Management System NGO non-governmental organization NPC National Partnership Coalition PSEA protection from sexual exploitation and abuse RPC regional partnership coalition SGBV sexual and gender-based violence SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region, Ethiopia SOP standard operating procedure TiP trafficking in persons UASC(s) unaccompanied and separated child(ren) vContents Acknowledgements..................................................................................................... iii Acronyms .......................................................................................................................v Key terms ......................................................................................................................ix Executive summary ...................................................................................................xiii Background ...............................................................................................................................xiii Protection risks to children on the move ...................................................................xiv About this report ....................................................................................................................xv Key findings and recommendations................................................................................ xx Part 1: Introduction .....................................................................................................1 Research objectives ..................................................................................................................1 Scope of the research .............................................................................................................2 Part 2: Findings on child migration ...........................................................................7 The migration context in Ethiopia .....................................................................................7 Protection risks for children on the move ...................................................................20 Part 3: The legal, policy and institutional response ...........................................25 Key legal, policy and institutional gaps ...........................................................................25 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................43 Recommendations ......................................................................................................45 National-level policy recommendations ........................................................................45 National-level operational recommendations .............................................................46 Annex 1. Research framework ................................................................................51 Annex 2. Stakeholder consultations ......................................................................53 Annex 3. Government institutions in Ethiopia with responsibilities for the protection of children in migration ...........................................................................57 Annex 4. Convention on the Rights of the Child: provisions relevant to children in migration .......................................61 Bibliography .................................................................................................................63 viiKey terms1 assisted voluntary return and reintegration Administrative, logistical or financial support, including

of children in migration ...........................................................................57 Annex 4. Convention on the Rights of the Child: provisions relevant to children in migration .......................................61 Bibliography .................................................................................................................63 viiKey terms1 assisted voluntary return and reintegration Administrative, logistical or financial support, including reintegration assistance, to migrants, unable or unwilling to remain in the host country or country of transit, who decide to return to their country of origin. bilateral labour migration agreement (BLMA) An arrangement between two States or agencies that describes in detail the specific responsibilities of each of the parties and the actions to be taken by them, with a view to accomplishing specific goals in terms of labour migration governance. BLMAs include specific, legally binding bilateral labour agreements and memorandums of understanding between government ministries or agencies, in countries of origin and destination, dealing with different aspects of labour migration. The term also covers framework and cooperation agreements concerned with labour migration, along with other migration issues such as irregular migration, readmission, and migration and development. (United Nations Network on Migration, 2022:8) broker (i.e. migration broker) An intermediary or “go-between” that facilitates transactions across several sectors in Ethiopia – for example, in job placement, where they connect employers with employees, frequently supplying households, restaurants and bars with domestic workers, waitstaff and bar staff, respectively. Amharic: delala (plural, delalas). (Erulkar, 2020:7) case management A person-centred process for providing protection and assistance to individuals with complex needs over the medium to the long term. Case management involves the coordination of formal and/ or informal services with a wide range of stakeholders, including government authorities, non-governmental organizations, international organizations, family members of the recipient and community members. (IOM, 2023a:xvii) child protection The prevention of and the response to violence, exploitation and abuse against children (UNICEF, 2021a:6).

government authorities, non-governmental organizations, international organizations, family members of the recipient and community members. (IOM, 2023a:xvii) child protection The prevention of and the response to violence, exploitation and abuse against children (UNICEF, 2021a:6). 1 Unless otherwise noted, definitions given in this glossary are adapted from the Glossary on Migration (IOM, 2019a). ixchild protection system A set of laws, policies, regulations, services, capacities, and monitoring and oversight mechanisms needed across all social sectors – especially social welfare, education, health, security and justice – to prevent and respond to protection-related risks (UNICEF, 2021b:9). children on the move Persons under the age of 18 moving for a variety of reasons, voluntarily or involuntarily, within or between countries, with or without their parent(s) or another primary caregiver, and whose movement, while it may open up opportunities for them, might also place them at risk (or at an increased risk) of economic or sexual exploitation, abuse, neglect and/or violence. The term covers children who are engaging in migration whether legally or illegally, locally or across international borders. (UNICEF Thailand, 2019) child trafficking The recruitment, transport or transfer, harbouring, or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation (United Nations, 2000:art. 3a; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2021). coercion The use of force or the threat thereof, and some forms of nonviolent or psychological constraint or the threat thereof, including but not limited to: (a) threats of harm upon or physical restraint of any person; (b) any scheme, plan or pattern intended to cause a person to believe that the failure to perform an act would result in serious harm to or physical restraint of any person; (c) any abuse or threat linked to the legal status of a person; and (d) psychological pressure (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2009:art. 5(e)).

a person to believe that the failure to perform an act would result in serious harm to or physical restraint of any person; (c) any abuse or threat linked to the legal status of a person; and (d) psychological pressure (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2009:art. 5(e)). irregular migration Movement of persons that takes place outside the laws, regulations and/or international agreements governing the entry into or exit from the State of origin, transit or destination. kafala system The relationship between foreign workers and their local sponsor (kafeel), which is usually their employer. It has been used in Gulf Cooperation Council countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates), as well as Jordan and Lebanon (Robinson, 2022). kebele The lowest administrative tier of the Government of Ethiopia. kidnapping The crime of seizing and taking away a person by force or fraud, often with a demand for ransom (IOM, 2023b). Primero Protection-related Information Management – an inter-agency digital tool used by the child protection and gender-based violence sectors in case management and incident monitoring (UNICEF, 2021a:17 and 34). xseparated child A child, as defined in article 1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, who has been separated from both parents, or from their previous legal or customary primary caregiver, but not necessarily from other relatives. These may, therefore, include children accompanied by other adult family members. (United Nations, 2005:para. 8) slavery The status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers attaching to the rights of ownership are exercised. smuggler (i.e. human smuggler) A person who commits or intends to commit the crime of human smuggling. smuggling (i.e. migrant smuggling) The procurement of the irregular entry of a person into a State Party, of which the person is not a national or permanent resident, so as to obtain, whether directly or indirectly, a financial

A person who commits or intends to commit the crime of human smuggling. smuggling (i.e. migrant smuggling) The procurement of the irregular entry of a person into a State Party, of which the person is not a national or permanent resident, so as to obtain, whether directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit. trafficker (i.e. human trafficker) Any person who commits or attempts to commit the crime of trafficking in persons, including by participating as an accomplice in or organizing or directing other persons to commit such crime. unaccompanied child A children, as defined in article 1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, who has been separated from both parents and other relatives and are not being cared for by an adult who, by law or custom, is responsible for doing so (United Nations, 2005:para. 7). In the context of migration, a child separated from both parents (or other caregivers) is generally referred to by this term. voluntary return The assisted or independent return to the country of origin, transit or another country based on the voluntary decision of the returnee. worst forms of child labour According to the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention of the International Labour Organization (ILO): (a) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom, and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; (b) the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography or for pornographic performances; (c) the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs, as defined in the relevant international treaties; (d) work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children. (ILO, 1999:art. 3) xiExecutive summary Background

in the relevant international treaties; (d) work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children. (ILO, 1999:art. 3) xiExecutive summary Background Children on the move in Ethiopia exist in a wide array of migrant categories, ranging from refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs) and asylum-seekers, to youth seeking better economic, educational and/or social opportunities, as well as those who are trafficked. Children may travel with their parents and/or caregivers, with some eventually becoming separated from them, or they may be unaccompanied throughout the journey (the latter two categories termed collectively as “unaccompanied and separated children” (UASCs)). They may move internationally, to seek these opportunities in other countries, or internally, most commonly in the form of rural-to-urban migration. Ethiopia is a country of origin and transit, with migration out of the country often proceeding through the following routes: (a) Eastern (onwards, through Djibouti and then Yemen, to Saudi Arabia and other Gulf States); (b) Southern (through Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania, primarily towards South Africa); (c) Western, also known as the Central Mediterranean Route (through the Sudan and Libya, towards Europe). (IOM, 2021) The Eastern Route is the busiest out of the Horn of Africa and is commonly taken by both accompanied and unaccompanied children. In 2022, unaccompanied migrant children who journeyed along this route numbered around 14,900, representing 37.5 per cent of all such children tracked during the year and which was double the number (7,300) in 2021 (IOM, 2023c). The migration routes taken by children on the move often involve several stopovers of varying durations where children face protection risks that range from arbitrary arrest and/or detention; human trafficking for purposes of forced labour and/or sexual exploitation; sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV); physical abuse, which may include attacks and/or torture; extortion; and discrimination.

involve several stopovers of varying durations where children face protection risks that range from arbitrary arrest and/or detention; human trafficking for purposes of forced labour and/or sexual exploitation; sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV); physical abuse, which may include attacks and/or torture; extortion; and discrimination. Stakeholders in all study locations highlighted an increase in the number of local children migrating elsewhere within Ethiopia during the last decade, citing that the breadth and necessity of migration had intensified due to escalating conflicts in the prior two years and had additionally triggered movements from rural to urban areas. Against this backdrop, monitoring migration remains a challenge. Continuous efforts are needed to enhance the currently weak data collection and analysis, which may put a strain on the already limited capacities of the Government to identify, reach out to and respond with support to protect children on the move, particularly those migrating outside of the humanitarian context. There is limited evidence across all types of migration experiences, including migration for domestic work, which hampers efforts to adequately address child migration and protect children. xiiiAn interplay of several factors likely accounts for the increase in child migration within Ethiopia. Certain key drivers were reported by research participants across all research sites during primary data collection and echoed the findings of recent studies in the field of child protection. These drivers include broader structural factors, such as conflict, the effects of climate change (e.g. drought), barriers to accessing education and poverty, as well as householdand community-level factors, including a large family size, violence and abuse in families, a culture of migration reinforced by relatives who have already migrated, harmful practices such as child marriage, and peer pressure. A general culture of migration that includes the widespread practice and acceptance of child labour as a survival strategy, as well as a degree of normalization of migrant smuggling and trafficking, additionally contributes to child migration in Ethiopia. These drivers or factors are mutually reinforcing, increasing the vulnerability of children and their exposure to unsafe and risky migration. Protection risks to children on the move Regardless of migration driver, there are several protection risks faced by children who migrate,2 including:

child migration in Ethiopia. These drivers or factors are mutually reinforcing, increasing the vulnerability of children and their exposure to unsafe and risky migration. Protection risks to children on the move Regardless of migration driver, there are several protection risks faced by children who migrate,2 including: (a) Arbitrary arrest and detention, primarily for immigration offences (this is a frequent occurrence among children); (b) Involuntary repatriation without fair, legal processes and without ensuring necessary child-specific protective measures; (c) Trafficking for forced labour and other exploitative purposes, including sexual exploitation; (d) Child labour, among other perilous economic survival tactics that entail dangerous work environments and conditions such as excessively long working hours, and which may eventually lead to trafficking for forced labour and other exploitative purposes, including sexual exploitation (item (c) above); (e) Physical and mental health issues, with their detrimental psychological effects (includes, e.g. adopting harmful coping mechanisms such as substance addiction), are often exacerbated by the challenging conditions of migration; (f) Various forms of violence, including SGBV, such as in the form of sexual exploitation and abuse, which carry the added risks of sexually transmitted infections and unintended pregnancies (such risks are elevated among children); (g) Food insufficiency and limited or total lack of access to fundamental services such as education, health care, and proper water and sanitation facilities. Child protection risks are exacerbated by various overlapping vulnerability factors. These include young age, female gender, low educational background, absence of legal status, being unaccompanied or separated from parents or caregivers, and having no birth certificate. 2 As per IOM (2021) and IFRC (2017), and as confirmed by a number of stakeholders interviewed for this study. Data was obtained from the following respondents during data collection from December 2022 to October 2023: (a) FGD with children at the IOM transit centre

in Addis Ababa (December 2022); (b) KII at the IOM Migration Response Centre (MRC) in Addis Ababa (December 2022); (c) KII with officials of NGOs (December 2022 to April 2023); and (d) KII with officials from various offices of the Government of Ethiopia (December 2022 to April 2023). xivA significant risk is being disconnected from home, support systems and social networks, which may be compounded by limited access to information and resources. In many cases, children on the move are unaware of available services or lack trust in them (IOM, 2021). This mistrust is partly due to the underdeveloped nature of these services and the limited understanding of the still-evolving role of social worker support. Furthermore, domestic migration receives less attention in child migration discourse than is warranted. This oversight is partly because domestic movements are harder to track than international ones. With increasing occurrences of conflict and drought and a challenging economic situation in Ethiopia, there is a growing number of children migrating for economic opportunities and/or being internally displaced, and Ethiopia remains among countries the highest numbers of IDPs of any age (International Displacement Monitoring Centre and Norwegian Refugee Council, 2023:ii and iii). Migrant and displaced children face significant risks, including trafficking, and current risk-mitigation and protection efforts are insufficient for those moving internally. Minimizing risks and extending child protection support requires an effective response by responsible institutions and knowledge of the current state of child protection needs in Ethiopia. About this report Purpose IOM Ethiopia commissioned this research to understand the intersection of the child protection system, migration governance and children on the move, with a particular focus on UASCs and child trafficking practices in Ethiopia. This work focuses on Ethiopian children migrating either internally or across borders and largely excludes non-Ethiopian migrant children in Ethiopia. The intent is to provide concrete recommendations that will be used by the Government of Ethiopia, IOM and other United Nations agencies, international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) and other concerned bodies to draw a clear picture

migrating either internally or across borders and largely excludes non-Ethiopian migrant children in Ethiopia. The intent is to provide concrete recommendations that will be used by the Government of Ethiopia, IOM and other United Nations agencies, international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) and other concerned bodies to draw a clear picture of protection platforms for children engaged in various forms of migration and improve available protection services and systems, to the benefit of children on the move. Methodology Three areas (Adama, Addis Ababa and Debre Birhan) were selected as qualitative research sites where primary data was collected from September 2022 to May 2023. In total, 47 key informant interviews (KIIs) and 35 focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with government officials, representatives of INGOs, United Nations agencies, members of community-based organizations (CBOs) and faith-based organizations (FBOs), parents, and children on the move, including returnees. The results of the primary data, alongside findings from a thorough desk review of relevant programme documents and published literature, are presented cohesively across three parts of this report: (a) Part I: General information about the research and its objectives and methodology; (b) Part II: An overview of the status of child migration in Ethiopia, examining key drivers of migration and child-protection risks; (c) Part III: The institutional and legal landscape for children on the move in Ethiopia, highlighting key policy gaps in protecting children on the move; (d) Annexes: Research framework, interviewee information and other relevant information. xvKey findings on the gaps in the child protection system and the needs of children on the move The child protection system in Ethiopia is gradually being developed, with the consolidation of powers for child protection under the Ministry of Women and Social Affairs (MoWSA) in 2021, the adoption of the National Children’s Policy in 2017 and the roll-out of the National Case Management System (NCMS) Framework in 2019. These recent steps are an attempt to establish a coordinated response to protecting children in the country, including those affected by migration, from violence, abuse and exploitation. Although these steps are

National Case Management System (NCMS) Framework in 2019. These recent steps are an attempt to estab