OIM - Migration Governance Insights Data‑driven Perspectives to Enhance Labour Migration Pathways

MGI M IGRA TION GO VERN ANCE IN SIGHT S: Data-driven Perspectives to Enhance Labour Migration PathwaysThe opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well‑being of migrants.

Publisher: Authors: Roberto Roca Paz and Yised Cardona Angel.

Research coordinator and editor: Estefania Guallar Ariño Required citation: Roca Paz, R. and Y. Cardona Angel (2025). Migration Governance Insights: Data‑driven Perspectives to Enhance Labour Migration Pathways. International Organization for Migration (IOM), Geneva.

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PUB2025/026/ELmIgRAtIOn gOVeRnAnce InsIgHts: Data‑driven Perspectives to Enhance Labour Migration Pathways Joint Labour Migration Programme | JLMP |FOREWORD Labour and skills mobility is essential for driving economic growth and sustainable development. As of 2024, UNDESA estimates that 304 million people – representing 3.7 per cent of the global population – were living outside their country of origin, including more than 167 million migrant workers contributing to labour markets around the world, according to the latest available ILO estimates. In 2023, migrants sent home over USD 857 billion in remittances, and in 2022, cross‑border migration generated an estimated USD  9  trillion in annual economic output, with projections reaching USD 20 trillion by 2050. As labour markets and migration patterns evolve, the need for robust labour migration governance becomes increasingly critical to ensure that development priorities can be realized through safe, orderly and regular migration. In this context, IOM is committed to assisting governments in establishing, expanding, and enhancing labour mobility pathways while simultaneously facilitating return and reintegration as well as reducing irregular migration, as highlighted in Objective 3 of IOM’s Strategic Plan 2024–2028. Effective labour migration governance ensures that policies respond to labour market needs, protect migrants, and contribute to both economic and social development. Drawing on data from the Migration Governance Indicators (MGI), this report provides comprehensive global insights into how countries govern labour migration and how policies

2024–2028. Effective labour migration governance ensures that policies respond to labour market needs, protect migrants, and contribute to both economic and social development. Drawing on data from the Migration Governance Indicators (MGI), this report provides comprehensive global insights into how countries govern labour migration and how policies can enhance the benefits of migration while addressing emerging challenges, such as aging societies and labour shortages around the world. It highlights three key components of effective labour migration governance: skills recognition, measures to protect migrant workers’ rights, and data as a policy enabler that informs policymaking. Featuring over 60 examples of policies and programmes from around 110 countries in the world, this report lays a solid foundation for evidence‑based discussions aimed at strengthening policy coherence, improving migration outcomes, and leveraging labour mobility as a driver of sustainable development. In a time marked by demographic shifts, economic transitions, and rapid technological advances, governments are continually challenged to adapt to evolving realities. The need for coherent, evidence‑based policies is more pressing than ever. I trust that the insights presented in this report will inspire future efforts to enhance effective labour migration governance, benefiting migrants, employers and societies alike. Ugochi Daniels, IOM Deputy Director General for Operations FOReWORD ii

MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The production of this report is led by Estefania Guallar Ariño, who also serves as the editor. Roberto Roca Paz and Yised Cardona Angel are the principal authors. Adriana Vides Lobos, Olivia Aitken and Vivian Liang provided valuable written contributions and assisted with dedicated research.

The authors thank Eva Åkerman Börje, Peter Guchu Kioy, Koko Warner, Marina Manke, Elizabeth Warn and Jose Fabio Jimenez for their strategic guidance throughout the preparation of this report. Special thanks go to Marina Manke and Jose Fabio Jimenez for their dedicated support and close engagement throughout the drafting process.

Elizabeth Warn and Jose Fabio Jimenez for their strategic guidance throughout the preparation of this report. Special thanks go to Marina Manke and Jose Fabio Jimenez for their dedicated support and close engagement throughout the drafting process. Further thanks go to Gabriela Alvarez Sánchez‑Spence, Yodit Fitigu and Virginia Negro for their expert written contributions, which enriched the thematic sections of the report. This report would not have been possible without the extensive efforts of Migration Governance Indicators (MGI) colleagues to ensure effective MGI data collection in the 110 participating countries and 96 local authorities. The authors recognize the valuable contributions of all MGI colleagues mentioned above as well as David Martineau, Annalisa Pellegrino, Reshma Cunnoosamy, Yoselyn Manzano, Johanna Gelves‑Reyes, Blick Nuwe, Hajar Guadar, Thierno Barry, Thais Cordeiro and Yuka Tazawa. In addition to the MGI team, we thank the following IOM colleagues for their review and valuable insights: Tommaso Grossi, Audrey Hickcox, Sonja Laukemper, Simon McMahon, Robert Menzies and Marek Sliwinski. We are also grateful to Laarni Alfaro, Carmelo Torres and Valerie Hagger from the IOM Publications Unit for the copy‑editing and layout of this report. AcknOWleDgements iii

MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSCONTENTS FOReWORD ........................................................................................................................ ii AcknOWleDgements ................................................................................................. iii lIst OF FIgURes ............................................................................................................... vi lIst OF tABles AnD teXt BOXes ........................................................................... vii AcROnYms ...................................................................................................................... viii eXecUtIVe sUmmARY ................................................................................................... ix BAckgROUnD ................................................................................................................ xiv IntRODUctIOn ............................................................................................................... 1

1. ADDRessIng lABOUR mARket neeDs tHROUgH mOBIlIt Y:

eXecUtIVe sUmmARY ................................................................................................... ix BAckgROUnD ................................................................................................................ xiv IntRODUctIOn ............................................................................................................... 1

1. ADDRessIng lABOUR mARket neeDs tHROUgH mOBIlIt Y: eVIDence On stRUctUReD, cOHeRent nAtIOnAl POlIcIes ............. 4

Where do migrant workers most frequently fill labour market gaps? ......................................... 6 What barriers limit labour mobility? .................................................................................................................. 6 Common approaches to managing labour migration ........................................................................... 7 Why do policy coherence and coordination matter? ............................................................................. 7 Structured labour migration policies and the business environment ............................................ 8 2. mAkIng lABOUR mIgRAtIOn WORk AcROss BORDeRs: sUstAInABle AnD eFFectIVe FRAmeWORks FOR InteRnAtIOnAl cOOPeRAtIOn ............................................................ 12

A common foundation: global standards and multicountry frameworks ............................... 13

Labour mobility and regional cooperation.................................................................................................. 14 Bilateral labour migration agreements: a tool for cross‑border governance ........................ 16 Operationalizing bilateral labour migration agreements ..................................................................... 16 Experience of different types of agreements for labour mobility ................................................ 17 Institutions and sustainable cooperation ...................................................................................................... 18 3. gettIng mORe OUt OF l ABOUR mOBIlItY: skIlls RecOgnItIOn AnD lABOUR mARket IntegRAtIOn ...............19 Recognition beyond formal qualifications .................................................................................................... 20 How can migrant skills be recognized? .......................................................................................................... 20 Building the infrastructure for formal recognition .................................................................................. 21

Skills mobility partnerships: linking training and recognition with jobs home and abroad ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

From study to skilled migration: leveraging international education pathways .................... 22 cOntents iv

MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS:

Building the infrastructure for formal recognition .................................................................................. 21

Skills mobility partnerships: linking training and recognition with jobs home and abroad ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

From study to skilled migration: leveraging international education pathways .................... 22 cOntents iv MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYS4. PROtectIng mIgRAnt WORkeRs’ RIgHts: cReAtIng tHe cOnDItIOns FOR mIgRAnts tO tHRIVe ..................................................... 27

Ongoing challenges in protecting migrant workers’ rights ................................................................ 28 The importance of providing clear and transparent information ................................................. 29 Ensuring protection throughout the migration continuum .............................................................. 30 Targeted protection for vulnerable groups ................................................................................................. 30 The role of social protection in migrants’ well‑being and social cohesion ............................. 31

5. BRIDgIng eVIDence AnD POlIcY: A DAtA‑DRIVen APPROAcH tO lABOUR mIgRAtIOn gOVeRnAnce ........................................................ 34

Labour supply data: understanding workforce characteristics ....................................................... 36

Labour demand data: aligning migration policy with labour market needs ........................... 37

Embedding evaluation into the policy cycle ................................................................................................ 38 Methods for evaluating labour migration policies ................................................................................... 39 Turning data insights into action: fostering government ownership ........................................... 41 cOnclUsIOns ................................................................................................................ 43

BIBlIOgRAPHY ................................................................................................................ 45

AnneXes .......................................................................................................................... 56 A1. Methodology ......................................................................................................................................................... 56 A2. Secondary (external) variables ................................................................................................................... 60 cOntents v

MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSLIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Alignment of Migration Governance Insights series with IOM Strategic Plan 2024–2028 ................................................................................................................. xiv Figure 2. Structure of the report ....................................................................................................... 2

DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSLIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Alignment of Migration Governance Insights series with IOM Strategic Plan 2024–2028 ................................................................................................................. xiv Figure 2. Structure of the report ....................................................................................................... 2 Figure 3. Global estimates of the stock of international migrants and international migrants in the labour force (2022) ........................................... 5 Figure 4. World Economic Forum business environment score, 1 (worst) to 7 (best) (by the existence of structured systems to manage labour immigration) ........................................................................................ 9 Figure 5. Subset analysis: World Economic Forum business environment score, 1 (worst) to 7 (best) (by the existence of structured systems to manage labour immigration) ..................................................................................... 10 Figure 6. Share of migrants with tertiary education (out of the total of adult migrant population) (by the existence of policies to facilitate the labour market integration of international students) ................................... 23 Figure 7. Subset analysis: Share of migrants with tertiary education (out of the total of adult migrant population) (by the existence of policies to facilitate the labour market integration of international students .................................................................................................. 24 Figure 8. The public policy life cycle............................................................................................... 38 Figure 9. Selected examples of labour policy impact .............................................................. 39 lIst OF FIgURes vi MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSLIST OF TABLES AND TEXT BOXES Table 1. Selected regional agreements supporting labour mobility ................................. 15 Table 2. Overview of common recognition of prior learning validation methods ......21 Table 3. Key statistics on migrant workers’ vulnerabilities and challenges ................... 28 Table 4. Strengths and limitations of selected impact evaluation methods ................. 40 T ext box 1. Economic potential undermined: the missed opportunity of migrant entrepreneurship ................................................................................................................. 11 T ext box 2. Expert contribution: THAMM Plus – advancing regular

Table 4. Strengths and limitations of selected impact evaluation methods ................. 40 T ext box 1. Economic potential undermined: the missed opportunity of migrant entrepreneurship ................................................................................................................. 11 T ext box 2. Expert contribution: THAMM Plus – advancing regular labour migration .................................................................................................................. 25 T ext box 3. Expert contribution: Trafficking into forced criminality – how online scamming centres in South‑East Asia are shaping new forms of trafficking ................................................................................................... 32 T ext box 4. Expert contribution: Data‑driven approaches to labour migration governance – spotlight on Africa ............................................................. 41 lIst OF tABles AnD teXt BOXes vii

MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS:

DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSACRONYMS

AseAn Association of Southeast Asian Nations BlmA Bilateral Labour Migration Agreement IlO International Labour Organization IOm International Organization for Migration moU Memorandum of Understanding RPl Recognition of prior learning sDg Sustainable Development Goal smP Skills mobility partnerships UnDP United Nations Development Programme AcROnYms viii

MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY At a time of demographic shifts, economic transitions, and technological advancements, coherent labour migration governance is essential for addressing immediate labour shortages and supporting long‑term economic resilience. By embedding structured policies, fostering international cooperation, and leveraging data‑driven insights, governments can facilitate labour migration pathways that benefit migrants, employers and societies alike. This report provides actionable recommendations to strengthen labour migration governance and maximize its positive impacts.

Labour migration is a key driver of global economic growth. Migrants fill critical labour and skills shortages, sustain essential industries, and contribute to development through remittances and knowledge exchange. Yet, the contributions of labour migration depend on how effectively it is governed : well‑designed pathways can facilitate safe and orderly labour mobility, while gaps in governance may lead to skills mismatches, underemployment

and skills shortages, sustain essential industries, and contribute to development through remittances and knowledge exchange. Yet, the contributions of labour migration depend on how effectively it is governed : well‑designed pathways can facilitate safe and orderly labour mobility, while gaps in governance may lead to skills mismatches, underemployment and vulnerabilities for migrant workers.

This raises key questions: What approaches do countries take to manage labour migration?

How can policies amplify its benefits while addressing emerging challenges? And what role do policy enablers and implementation mechanisms play in translating regular pathways into practice? This report – the third installment in the Migration Governance Insights series – offers IOM’s first globally comparative assessment of how countries govern labour migration. Drawing on data from the Migration Governance Indicators (MGI) – IOM’s flagship initiative on migration governance – it analyses how 110 countries and 96 local jurisdictions regulate labour migration through structured legal, policy and regulatory frameworks established by States at national, bilateral, regional or global levels. Aimed at policymakers and practitioners, the report distills lessons from over 60 policy examples and integrates empirical findings to support discussions on labour policy coherence, strengthen labour migration outcomes, and position mobility as a lever for sustainable economic development. eXecUtIVe sUmmARY ix MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSLabour migration governance is broad and multifaceted. In addition to examining regular pathways for labour migration – established through national policies and international cooperation , the report zooms in on three key components of effective governance: Skills Recognition and Labour Market Integration, Protecting Migrant Workers’ Rights , and a Data‑Driven Approach to Labour Migration Governance. These represent implementation mechanisms and policy enablers that help operationalize regular pathways for labour mobility. structure of the report

1. Structured and coherent national policies

3. Skills recognition and labour market integration

4. Protecting migrant wo rkers’ rights

5. A data-driven approach to labour migration governance

2. International cooperation

mobility. structure of the report

1. Structured and coherent national policies

3. Skills recognition and labour market integration

4. Protecting migrant wo rkers’ rights

5. A data-driven approach to labour migration governance

2. International cooperation framew orks labour migration Selected implementation mechanisms and policy enablers Regular pathways for eXecUtIVe sUmmARY x MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSBarriers continue to limit migrant workers’ potential Many migrants face high entry thresholds, gaps in skills recognition, and legal uncertainty that restrict access to decent work and hinder integration. Even when employed, protection is often limited. cross‑border cooperation amplifies national efforts International cooperation complements national frameworks. Through global standards, regional agreements, and bilateral partnerships, States manage migration in ways that are predictable, rights‑based and development oriented.

labour policy coherence matters Labour migration policies work best when embedded in a structured and coherent system – with clearly defined pathways, different permit types by skill or sector, and transparent selection criteria. migration strategies are the foundation of structured labour migration systems National migration strategies help consolidate permit types, clarify entry pathways, and improve coordination across institutions. On average, structured systems for managing labour immigration are more often found in MGI‑assessed countries with a national migration strategy embedded in a programmatic document (29% versus 13%). This trend is even more pronounced among primarily destination countries (50% versus 20%). Regional agreements are a key tool to support labour mobility Nearly two‑thirds of MGI‑assessed countries (62%) participate in regional frameworks that facilitate cross‑border labour mobility. These agreements often include provisions for skills recognition, social security portability, visa waivers and access to labour rights. strong institutions support labour agreements On average, bilateral labour migration agreements (BLMAs) are more often found in MGI‑assessed countries with dedicated institutions to coordinate the design and implementation of migration policy (88% versus 72%).

and access to labour rights. strong institutions support labour agreements On average, bilateral labour migration agreements (BLMAs) are more often found in MGI‑assessed countries with dedicated institutions to coordinate the design and implementation of migration policy (88% versus 72%). Well‑regulated systems support stronger business environments Regular labour migration pathways are more effective when embedded in coherent policy frameworks and supported by well‑coordinated institutions – pointing to a positive link between structured governance and more favourable conditions for investment. The WEF’s Business Environment Score ranges from 1 (worst) to 7 (best) and captures both business executives’ perceptions of policy stability and objective indicators – such as property rights, rule of law and openness to trade. On average, MGI‑assessed countries with structured systems to manage labour immigration score higher on the Business Environment Score (4.22 versus 3.44). This relationship holds even among high‑income and upper‑middle‑income countries (4.55 versus 4.07) and among countries with a high share of international migrant workers (4.93 versus 4.09).

1. Addressing labour market needs through mobility: evidence on structured and coherent national policies 2. making labour migration work across borders: sustainable and effective frameworks for international cooperation eXecUtIVe sUmmARY xi MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INSIGHTS: DATA-DRIVEN PERSPECTIVES TO ENHANCE LABOUR MIGRATION PATHWAYSRecognition of Prior learning (RPl) improves access to the labour market and skills matching RPL enables migrants to demonstrate skills acquired outside formal education systems. When effectively implemented, it helps reduce underemployment and improves the alignment between migrant skills and labour market needs.

Accessible and up‑to‑date information empowers migrant workers Clear, user‑friendly information on rights, procedures and support services is essential for informed decision‑making. Local governments in both origin and destination countries play a key role in improving access through tools such as Migrant Resource Centres, orientation programmes, and local service hubs. skills mobility Partnerships (smPs) link training, skills development and recognition with jobs at home and abroad

decision‑making. Local governments in both origin and destination countries play a key role in improving access through tools such as Migrant Resource Centres, orientation programmes, and local service hubs. skills mobility Partnerships (smPs) link training, skills development and recognition with jobs at home and abroad SMPs align skills development and recognition – including RPL – with labour market needs in both origin and destination countries. By linking governments, training providers, and employers, SMPs support better‑prepared migration and contribute to more sustainable development outcomes for all parties involved. support for student‑to‑work transitions: a missed opportunity Only 20 per cent of MGI‑assessed countries allow international students to work during their studies and also have policies supporting their transition into the labour market.

migrant workers should be protected throughout the entire migration continuum Comprehensive protection requires safeguards from recruitment to employment and beyond – yet significant gaps remain. Less than one third of MGI‑assessed countries (32%) have measures in place to promote the ethical recruitment of migrant workers. Only 40 per cent have specific policies to combat migrant labour exploitation. social protection remains a critical gap in migrant inclusion Extending social protection to migrant workers reduces vulnerability, supports economic stability and strengthens social cohesion. Only 27 per cent of MGI‑assessed countries provide all regular migrants with equal access to social protection as nationals – highlighting one of the most persistent challenges in labour migration governance. student integration policies correlate with higher‑skilled migration Coherent labour migration governance connects education and labour policy frameworks to support a more skilled and adaptable migrant workforce – while also fostering long‑term integration and social cohesion. On average, MGI‑assessed countries that facilitate the labour market integration of international students – by allowing them to work during their studies and establishing post‑graduation employment pathways – have a higher share of tertiary‑educated migrants (29.69% versus 18.15%). This relationship holds even among high‑income and upper‑middle‑income countries (31.94% versus 21.61%), and countries with a high share of internationally mobile students (31.34% versus 20.03%).

pathways – have a higher share of tertiary‑educated migrants (29.69% versus 18.15%). This relationship holds even among high‑income and upper‑middle‑income countries (31.94% versus 21.61%), and countries with a high share of internationally mobile students (31.34% versus 20.03%). 3. getting more out of labour mobility: sk